1. EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION IN MODULES David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2011

2. Memory

3. Information Processing
Module 20

4. The Phenomenon of Memory
Studying Memory: Information Processing Models
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode: Levels of Processing
What We Encode

5. Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
Working/Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Storing Information in the Brain
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues

6. Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

7. The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is the persistence of learning over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.
Human memory can be pretty amazing.
People who were shown the whole image 17 years before were more likely to identify the fragment.

8. Studying Memory: Information Processing Models
To remember any event we must: - Encode, or process the information into our brains - Store, or retain, the information - Be able to retrieve the information, get it back out
Preview Question 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

9. Studying Memory: Information Processing Models
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that we form memories in three stages: 1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory. 2. From there, we process information into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal. 3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.

10. Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of Memory
The Atkinson/Shiffrin model, though important, is limited and fallible. The updated model is below.

11. Modifications to the Three-Stage Model
Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

12. Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

13. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
Preview Question 2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

14. Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information through automatic processing, encoding without conscious effort, such as:
Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.
Well-learned material: For example, seeing words in your native language you can’t help but register their meaning.

15. Learning the concepts in this module requires effortful processing.
Effortful processing requires attention and conscious effort, but often leads to durable and accessible memories.
Learning the concepts in this module requires effortful processing.

16. Effortful Processing
When learning new information be can boost memory through rehearsal, or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Through this he discovered the spacing effect - the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than through massed study or practice.

17. The serial position effect, our tendency to
Effortful Processing
The serial position effect, our tendency to
recall best the last and first items in a list, further illustrates the benefits of rehearsal.

18. What We Encode Encoding by meaning Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Preview Question 3: What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

19. Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

20. Visual Encoding
Imagery, or mental pictures, is a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Imagery is at the heart of many mnemonic devices, or memory aids. Some modern mnemonic devices rely on both acoustic and visual codes.

21. Organizing Information for Encoding Chunking
Mnemonic devices can help organize material for later retrieval.
Chunking, organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically.

22. Try to remember the numbers below.
Chunking
Try to remember the numbers below.
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better

23. Hierarchy
Hierarchies takes a few broad concepts and breaks them down into categories and subcategories.
Fig 20.9

24. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

25. Sensory Memory
Researcher George Sperling showed people groups of letters and later asked them to recall what they saw.
His experiments revealed iconic memory – a momentary sensory memory for visual stimuli – and echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory for auditory stimuli.
Preview Question 4: What are the two components of sensory memory?

26. Working Memory
To test the duration of a memory Peterson and Peterson (1959), asked people to remember three-consonant groups and prevented rehearsal by asking them, for example, to start at 100 and count aloud backward by threes.
Preview Question 5: What are the duration and capacity of short-term and of long-term memory?

27. Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).
Short-term recall is slightly better for random digits than it is for random letters, and also slightly better for what we hear than for what we see.

28. Long-Term Memory
Our capacity for storing long-term memories is essentially limitless.
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

29. Storing Memories in the Brain
Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.
Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.
Preview Question 6: How does the brain store our memories?

30. Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia, the California sea slug, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning.

31. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov Courtesy of Dominique Muller

32. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

33. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

34. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Amnesia is the loss of memory.
Most people suffering from amnesia lose explicit memory, but retain implicit memories. They may lose the names of loved ones, but still know how to brush their teeth.

35. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.

36. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.

37. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Preview Question7: How do we get information out of memory?
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Even if OprahWinfrey and Brad Pitt had not become famous, their high school classmates would most likely still recognize their yearbook photos

38. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Remembering an event requires more than encoding it and retaining it. You must also be able to retrieve it.
In recall a person must retrieve information learned
earlier, as on a fill - in - the - blank test.
In recognition the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple - choice test.
Relearning assesses the amount of time saved when
learning material for a second time.

39. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.

40. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

41. Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Preview Question 8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?

42. Context Effects
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
It happens most commonly to well - educated, imaginative young adults, especially
when tired or stressed.

43. Moods and Memories
Memories are mood-congruent, meaning we usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures