1. False beliefs about memory
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2. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
The Nature of Memory
Memory: internal record or
representation of some prior
event or experience
Memory is also a constructive process, in which we actively organize and shape information as it is processed, stored, and retrieved.
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Enhancing Memory

3. The Nature of Memory retention of information or experience over time
Three Phases of Memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
Why is memory important? Instructors might use this question to introduce the importance of memory and memory research. It might also serve as a prompt for a reflective paper, for small group/class discussions, or as a prompt for the instructor to discuss the obvious and not-so-obvious responses to this question.
IM: Three Phases of Memory Activity

4. The Nature of Memory— Four Memory Models
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5. The Nature of Memory— Four Memory Models (Continued)
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6. The Nature of Memory— Description of Four Memory Models
1. Information Processing Approach: memory is a process analogous to a computer, which encodes, stores, and retrieves information
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7. The Nature of Memory— Description of Four Memory Models (Cont.)
2. Parallel Distributed Processing Model: memory is distributed across a network of interconnected units that work simultaneously (in a parallel fashion) to process information
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8. The Nature of Memory— Description of Four Memory Models (Continued)
3. Levels of Processing Approach: memory depends on the degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered
4. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model: memory requires three different storage boxes to hold and process information for various lengths of time
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9. Serial Position Effect: Evidence for two memory stores
Serial Position Effect: remembering material at the beginning and end of the list better than material in the middle
Primacy Effect
more space in working memory for elaborative rehearsal during encoding: LTM
Recency Effect
items still in working memory
IM: Serial Position Effect Activity

10. Diagram of Three-Stage Memory Model
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Enhancing Memory

11. Summary of three stages
SR: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss?
STS: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss?
LTM: Duration? Representation? Capacity? Loss?
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12. The Nature of Memory— Description of Three Stage Memory Model
Sensory Memory: briefly preserves a relatively exact replica of sensory information
Sensory memory has a large capacity but information only lasts a few seconds.
Selected information is sent on to short-term memory.
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13. Sperling’s Experiment with Sensory Memory
When flashed an arrangement of 12 letters for 1/20 of a second, most people can only recall 4 or 5. Sperling proved all 12 letters were available in sensory memory if they can be attended to quickly.
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14. The Nature of Memory— Three Stage Memory Model (Cont.)
Short-Term Memory (STM): temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory (LTM)
STM can hold 5-9 items for about 30 seconds before they are forgotten.
STM capacity can be increased with chunking. STM duration improves with maintenance rehearsal.
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15. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Types of Rehearsal
Maintenance vs. Elaborative
Repetition vs. Meaningful associations
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16. Working Memory Model

17. The Nature of Memory— Three Stage Memory Model (Continued)
Long-Term Memory (LTM): relatively permanent memory storage with a virtually limitless capacity
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18. Types of Long-Term Memories
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19. Memory: Brain Structures

20. Improving Long-Term Memory (LTM)
LTM can be improved with:
Organization
Elaborative Rehearsal
Retrieval Cues
Recognition
Recall
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21. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Semantic nature of LTM
Who was president in 1940?
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22. An Example of Using Hierarchies as an Organizational Tool
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23. An Example of Recognition Vs. Recall
Research shows people are better at recognizing photos of previous high school classmates than recalling their names.
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24. Forgetting: How Quickly Do We Forget?
Ebbinghaus found:
forgetting occurs most rapidly immediately after learning.
relearning takes less time than initial learning.
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25. Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories
Decay
Interference
Motivated Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure
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26. Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)
1. Decay Theory:
memory degrades with time
2. Interference Theory: one memory competes (interferes) with another
Retroactive Interference (new information interferes with old)
Proactive Interference (old information interferes with new)
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27. Forgetting: Interference vs. Decay
Key Study: Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924), subjects learn list of words either before sleeping or after waking.
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28. Two Forms of Interference
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29. Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)
3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories
4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded in LTM
5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
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30. Forgetting: Memory Failure
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
content – remembering what to do
timing – remembering when to do it
absentmindedness
amnesia
anterograde amnesia
inability to store new information and events
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve past information and events
IM: Prospective Memory Activity

31. A Test for Encoding: Can You Identify the Actual Penny?
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32. Overcoming Problems with Forgetting (Continued)
Source Amnesia: forgetting the true source of a memory
Sleeper Effect: information from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because source is forgotten
Spacing of Practice: distributed practice is better than massed practice
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33. Biological Bases of Memory
Biological changes in neurons facilitate memory through long-term potentiation (LTP), which happens in at least two ways:
repeated stimulation of a synapse strengthens the synapse, and
neuron’s ability to release its neurotransmitters is increased or decreased.
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34. Biological Bases of Memory (Continued)
Hormones
also affect memory (e.g., flashbulb memories--vivid and lasting images are associated with surprising or strongly emotional events).
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35. Where Are Memories Located?
Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain--not just the cortex.
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36. Biology and Memory Loss: Injury and Disease
Amnesia: memory loss from brain injury or trauma
Retrograde amnesia: old memories lost
Anterograde amnesia: new memories lost
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37. Biology and Memory Loss: Injury and Disease (Continued)
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss
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38. Memory and the Criminal Justice System
Two memory problems with profound legal implications:
Eyewitness Testimony--
very persuasive but can be flawed
Repressed Memories—
considerable debate as to whether recovered memories are accurate or repressed
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39. Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory
Why do we distort our memories?
Need to maintain logic and consistency.
Need to shape and construct our memories because it is more efficient to do so.
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40. Pause and Reflect: Why Study Psychology?
Psychological research conducts basic research, which helps us describe and understand our own and others’ memory processes. This basic research also leads to applied research that shows us how to improve our sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
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Enhancing Memory

41. Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)
Eight Tips for Memory Improvement:
1. Pay attention and reduce interference
2. Use rehearsal techniques
3. Organization
4. Counteract serial position effect
5. Time management
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42. Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)
6. Use encoding specificity principle
7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning
8. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations)
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43. Pause and Reflect: Critical Thinking
Which of the “Eight Tips for Memory Improvement” do you need to use to improve your academic performance? Which of the eight tips would your best friend suggest that you need to improve for your everyday interactions?
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44. Psychology in Action (8e) by Karen Huffman
PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation
End of
Chapter 7: Memory
Karen Huffman, Palomar College
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