1. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood
PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College -- Omaha
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2. The Development of Self-Understanding
Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits
They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self
More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms
(Harter, 2006)
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3. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image
Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality
Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the self
Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance
(Dusek & McIntyre, 2003; Harter, 2006)
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4. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
Identify the causes of low self-esteem
Provide emotional support and social approval
Help children achieve
Help children cope
(Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 1999, 2006)
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Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activities
students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging
high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks
(Schunk & Zimmerman, 2003, 2006)
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Self Regulation
Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement
Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex
(Laible & Thompson, 2007; Saarni & others, 2006) (Durston & others, 2007)
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7. Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus Inferiority
Industry -- becoming interested in how things are made and how they work
When children are encouraged in their efforts, their sense of industry increases
Parents who see their children’s efforts at making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children
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8. Developmental Changes in Emotion
Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation
Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions
Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
A capacity for genuine empathy
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9. Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping Strategies
Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and security
Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them
Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings 
Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma
Help children make sense of what happened
(Gurwitch & others, 2001)
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Moral Development
According to Piaget, older children:
consider the intentions of the individual
believe that rules are subject to change
are aware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal
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The Kohlberg Stages
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal
Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government
Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code
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Kohlberg’s Substages
Preconventional reasoning
Stage 1. Heteronomous morality
Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange
Conventional reasoning
Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
Stage 4. Social systems morality
Postconventional reasoning
Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights
Stage 6. Universal ethical principles
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Kohlberg’s Critics
Key criticisms involve
link between moral thought and moral behavior
roles of culture and the family in moral development
significance of concern for others
Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues some moral concepts in particular cultures
(Lapsley, 2006; Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006; Smetana, 2006; Turiel, 2006; Walker, 2006) (Miller, 2006; Shweder & others, 2006; Wainryb, 2006)
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15. Gender and the Care Perspective
The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan
She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias
Kohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective
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Prosocial Behavior  
Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning
Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development
sharing is one aspect of prosocial behavior
by the elementary school years, children express objective ideas about fairness
(Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2002) (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
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17. Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and Differences
Gender stereotypes -- broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males
Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind…
the differences are averages
even when differences are reported, there is considerable gender overlap
the differences may be due primarily to biological and/or sociocultural factors
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Physical Development  
Males grow to be 10% taller
Females have a longer life expectancy
Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders
Males have twice the risk of coronary disease
Male hormones promote the growth of long bones; female hormones stop such growth at puberty
Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females
(Goldstein & others, 2001; Kimura, 2000)
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19. Cognitive Development
Males have better math and visuospatial skills whereas females have better verbal abilities
Later studies showed verbal differences between females and males had virtually disappeared, but that math and visuospatial differences still existed
Cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated
(Maccoby & Jacklin,1974) (Maccoby, 1987) (Hyde, 2005, 2007)
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20. Socioemotional Development
Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
girls tend to be more verbally aggressive
there are no definitive findings on relational aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry
Boys are more likely to hide negative emotions
Girls are less likely to express disappointment that might hurt others’ feelings
(White, 2001) (Crick & others, 2004; Underwood, 2004) (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996)
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21. Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic
Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior
The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing
(Eisenberg & Morris, 2004) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
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22. Gender-Role Classification in Context
Androgyny -- the presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person
androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy
The importance of considering gender in context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world
(Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)
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23. Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships
In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children
Parents continue to be important
Parents support and stimulate academic achievement
Children receive less physical discipline than they did as preschoolers
Children in grade school use more self-regulation
(Huston & Ripke, 2006)
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Parents as Managers
Parents can play important roles
managers of children’s opportunities
monitors of children’s behavior
social initiators and arrangers
Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems
(Parke & Buriel, 2006) (Taylor, 1996)
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Stepfamilies
About half of all children whose parents divorce will have a stepparent
Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult in a stepfamily
Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents
Simple families show better adjustment than complex (blended) families
(Hetherington, 2006) (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 2002) (Santrock, Sitterle, & Warshak, 1988) (Anderson & others, 1999; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002)
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Types of Stepfamilies
Three common types of stepfamily structure are
stepfather
mother typically had custody of the children and remarried
stepmother
father usually had custody and remarried
blended or complex
In a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily
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Latchkey Children
Latchkey children -- children who use the key to their home to let themselves in after school while their parents are still at work
latchkey children are largely unsupervised for two to four hours or more per day
experiences of latchkey children vary enormously
parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the child cope more effectively
(Galambos & Maggs, 1989; Steinberg, 1986)
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28. After-School Programs
Practitioners and policymakers recommend that after-school programs have
warm and supportive staff
flexible and relaxed schedule
multiple activities
opportunities for positive interactions with staff and peers
(Coley, Morri, & Hernandez, 2004) (Pierce, Hamm, & Vandell, 1997)
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29. Developmental Changes in Peer Relations
Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges
Amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases
Size of their peer group increases
Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults
Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are preferred
(Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
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Peer Status
Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group
5 peer statuses
Popular children
Average children
Neglected children
Rejected children
Controversial children
(Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006) (Wentzel & Asher,1995)
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Being Popular
Popular children
give out reinforcements
listen carefully
maintain open lines of communication with peers
are happy and control their negative emotions
show enthusiasm and concern for others
are self-confident without being conceited
(Hartup, 1983; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998).
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Other Statuses
Neglected children -- low rates of interaction with their peers; often described as shy by peers
Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected
Some but not all rejected children are aggressive
(Coie, 2004; Ladd, 2005) (Ladd, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006; Hymel, McDougall, & Renshaw, 2004)
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33. Training for More Effective Interactions with Peers
Help them to attract attention from their peers in positive ways and hold that attention by asking questions, by listening in a warm and friendly way, and by saying things about themselves that relate to the peers’ interests.
Role-playing or discussing hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers
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Social Cognition
Social cognition -- thinking about social matters
important for understanding peer relationships
5 steps in processing information about the social world
decode social cues
interpret
search for a response
select an optimal response
enact
(Dodge, 1983)
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Bullying
Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends
Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate
Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies
(DeRosier & Marcus, 2005; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Roberts, 2005) (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
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Victims of bullies had
higher incidence of headaches
more abdominal pain
sleeping problems and feeling tiredness
more depression
Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol
(Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2004)
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Reducing Bullying
Teachers and schools can employ several strategies
Get older peers to serve as monitors
Develop school-wide rules and sanctions against bullying and post them
Incorporate the message of the anti-bullying program into other community activities
Identify bullies and victims early
Use social skills training to improve bullies’ behavior
(Hyman & others, 2006; Limber, 1997, 2004; Milsom & Gallo, 2006) (Macklem, 2003)
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38. Functions of Friendships
Children’s friendships can serve six functions
companionship 
stimulation
physical support
ego support
social comparison
affection and intimacy
Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts
Gottman & Parker, 1987) (Berndt & Perry, 1990)
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39. Constructivist Approach
Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher
children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher
(Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006; Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Morrison, 2006)
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40. Direct Instruction Approach
Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum
Important goal: maximizing student learning
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41. Constructivist versus Direct Instruction Approach
Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively
Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague
(Duffy & Kirkley, 2004)
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Accountability
Demands for accountability include
state-mandated tests to measure just what students have or have not learned
high expectations and high standards for students
(McNergney & McNergney, 2007) (Revelle, 2004) (Lewis, 2006)
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43. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity
Schools in low-income areas are more likely to:
have more students with low achievement test scores
have low graduation rates
have small percentages of students going to college
have young teachers with less experience
encourage rote learning
have buildings and classrooms that are old and crumbling
(Spring, 2008)
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Ethnicity in Schools
School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education
The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably
Institutional racism, by which teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color, permeates many American schools
(Banks, 2006) (Bennett, 2007; Spring, 2008) (Ogbu & Stern, 2001; Spencer, 1999)
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