1. Fundamentals of Data and Signals
Lecture 2
Fundamentals of Data and Signals

2. Objectives
In this lecture, we explore the following telecommunications concepts:
Different between data and signal
Four combination of analog and digital applications
Signals
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3. Signals Properties Conversion between Analog and Digital Analog
Analog data transmitted using analog signals
Digital data transmitted using digital signals
Digital data transmitted using analog signals
Analog data transmitted using digital signals
Where are digital data came from?
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4. Data and signal Data Signals Data and signals can be analog or digital
are entities that convey meaning
Examples: computer files, music on CD, results from a blood gas analysis machine)
Signals
are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data (telephone conversation, web page download)
Examples: Computer networks and data/voice communication systems transmit signals
Data and signals can be analog or digital
Analog Vs Digital
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5. Analog vs. Digital Analog Digital
is a continuous waveform, with examples such as (naturally occurring) music and voice
It is harder to separate noise from an analog signal than it is to separate noise from a digital signal (imagine the following waveform is a symphony with noise embedded)
Digital
is a discrete or non-continuous waveform with examples such as computer 1s and 0s
Noise in digital signal
You can still discern a high voltage from a low voltage
Too much noise – you cannot discern a high voltage from a low voltage
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6. Analog signal
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7. Digital Signal
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8. Four combinations
Types of each application
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9. Table 2-1 Four combinations of data and signals
We will talk about each of these
in today’s lecture
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10. Properties of analog signals
Four main properties:
1. Frequency
2. Bandwidth
3. Amplitude
4. Signal phase
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11. Frequency 1. Frequency youtube1, youtube2 ,
the electronic signal is commonly diagram as a sine wave (see Figure 5-12)
unit of measurement is the Hertz, hz
human ear can hear between 20 hz to 15,000 hz
telephone voice ranges 300 to 3,000 hz
other feq ranges see Figures 5-13 to 5-15
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12. FIGURE 5-12 Sine waves of differing frequencies.
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13. FIGURE 5-13 The frequency ranges of some common sounds.
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Other applications of frequency ranges

14. More details= views (to p15)
FIGURE The frequency spectrum showing the common names applied to certain frequency ranges.
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More details= views

15. FIGURE 5-15 A more detailed view of the frequency spectrum relevant to telecommunications.
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16. FIGURE 5-18 Analog wave with constant frequency and varying amplitude.
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17. Bandwidth 2. Bandwidth YouTube
different between upper ad lower frequency range
for tel signal is 2700 hg (ie hz)
voice circuits in tel design for 0 to 4000 hz
0 to 300 hz, and 3000 to 4000 hz are referred to guard channel/band, which use as a buffer so that no interface between different signals
see Figure 5-17
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18. FIGURE 5-17 Bandwidth of a voice channel.
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19. Amplitude 3. Amplitude YouTube signal for measure loudness of signal
measurement unit is decibel (dB)
if dB is too strong for one line, caused crossed talk
if dB is too weak, caused attenuation.
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20. FIGURE 5-19 The relative power of a signal measured in decibels.
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21. Alternative example (to p22)
FIGURE A signal loses strength as the distance it travels increases. This loss of strength is called attenuation.
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Alternative example

22. Note: textbook shows the calculation but we will not pick up in this subject
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23. Signal phase 4. Signal phase measure the shift of sine ware
Phase changes often occur on common angles, such as 45, 90, 135, etc.
only important to data comm, and not detected by voice comm. (why?)
will discuss more in later chapter
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24. FIGURE 5-21 Example of a phase shift.
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25. (to p23)

26. Digitization A series of bits, which representing characters,
can be presented as a form or positive or negative
phases in a comm system
eg.
“1” represent by a positive pulse
“0” represent by a negative pulse
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27. This alternative representation of data through pulse is called digital signal
Question:
How could we detect signal and represent them in digital format?
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28. Representation of digital signals
3 most common forms of digital signals:
1. Unipolar
“1” bit is represented by positive voltage and “0” bit by no voltage
2. Bipolar Non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
“1” bit representing by a positive voltage and “0” bit by a negative voltage
3. Bipolar Return-to-zero
similar to NRZ except pulses between two different bits are shorter
(see Figure 8-5)
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29. FIGURE 8-5 Digital signals.
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explanations
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30. Fundamental difference exists between NRZ-L and NRZI
Nonreturn to zero-level (NRZ-L) transmits 1s as zero voltages and 0s as positive voltages
Nonreturn to zero inverted (NRZI) has a voltage change at the beginning of a 1 and no voltage change at the beginning of a 0
Fundamental difference exists between NRZ-L and NRZI
With NRZ-L, the receiver has to check the voltage level for each bit to determine whether the bit is a 0 or a 1,
With NRZI, the receiver has to check whether there is a change at the beginning of the bit to determine if it is a 0 or a 1
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31. Representation of digital signals(cont).
Usages:
1) Not popular adopted
2) & 3) a distinction useful in trouble shooting when problems occur
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32. Analog data transmitted using analog signals
In order to transmit analog data, you can modulate the data onto a set of analog signals
Broadcast radio and television are two very common examples of this
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33. (to p3)

34. Digital data transmitted using digital signals
This is same as the way we described the digital properties, ie:
Polar, non-polar, return/none-return-zeor, etc
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35. Digital data transmitted using analog signals
Analog has four properties, and we convert the following three important ones:
Three Functional roles:
a) Frequency modulation
b) Amplitude modulation
c) Phase modulation
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36. Frequency modulation a) Frequency modulation
When a 1 bit is sent, it represents a different or certain attributes (amplitude, frequency and phase), and 0 bit represents the change of different attributes
At the end, modem/device will sense the different and generate oscillator (that is wave)
These waves are converted to a digital signal at the end of a modem
special type of freq mod is know as frequency shift key (FSK)
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37. An example of modem Example: Bell type 103 modem
The original modem transmits 0 bits (or spaces) at 1070 Hz and 1 bits at 1270 Hz. The answer modem uses 2025 Hz for spaces and 2225 Hz for marks
refer to Figures 8-10 and 8-11
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Frequencies
Bandwidth
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38. FIGURE 8-10 Frequencies used by a Bell Type 103 modem.
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39. FIGURE 8-11 Frequency modulation in a Bell Type 103 modem.
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40. B) Amplitude modulation
One amplitude encodes a 0 while another amplitude encodes a 1 (a form of amplitude modulation)
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41. C) Phase modulation
is performed by shifting a sine wave 180 degree whenever a digit bit stream changes from 0 to 1
see Figure 8-13
generally, it’s known as phase shift keying (PSK)
another type is called differential phase shift keying (DPSK), taken place when the phase is shifted each time an one bit is transmitted; otherwise the phase remains as the same
see Figures 8-14 and 8-15
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42. FIGURE Phase shifts.
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43. (to p41)

44. FIGURE 8-14 Phase shift keying (PSK).
Alternate when hit the different digital code, say from 1 to 0
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45. FIGURE 8-15 Differential phase shift keying (DPSK).
Alternate when there is a same code in a sequence
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46. Phase modulation
Depend upon number of possible shifts, a binary signal could be represented by a dibits, tribits or quadbits
Example: Phase Shift Dibits
0 degree 00
90 degree 01
180 degree 10
270 degree 11
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47. Phase modulation
Quadrature amplitude modulation
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48. Analog data transmitted using digital signals
To convert analog data into a digital signal, there are two techniques:
Pulse code modulation (the more common)
Delta modulation
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49. Pulse code modulation
The analog waveform is sampled at specific intervals and the “snapshots” are converted to binary values
The more snapshots taken in the same amount of time, or the more quantization levels, the better the resolution
When the binary values are later converted to an analog signal, a waveform similar to the original results
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50. (to p49)

51. Quantization The transformation is to
first measure the height (voltage) of the analog signal at a particular point of time, and
then represent those voltage corresponding to the “turning” point
this method of measurement of integer value is known as “Quantization”
Example 1, Figure 8.6
Example 2, Figure 8.7
note
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52. FIGURE 8-6 Quantization of an analog voice signal.
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53. FIGURE 8-7 ADPCM codes the difference in signal strength in bits each time a sample is taken.
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54. Since telephone systems digitize human voice, and since the human voice has a fairly narrow bandwidth, telephone systems can digitize voice into either 128 or 256 levels
These are called quantization levels
If 128 levels, then each sample is 7 bits (2 ^ 7 = 128)
If 256 levels, then each sample is 8 bits (2 ^ 8 = 256)
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55. Delta Modulation
An analog waveform is tracked, using a binary 1 to represent a rise in voltage, and a 0 to represent a drop
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56. Digital data
They are from all textual characters or symbols that corresponding to binary patterns of a code system, also called a data code
There are three common data code sets:
EBCDIC
ASCII
Unicode
Before reviewing those above, we first review what is data coding in digital world next!
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57. Data Coding Digitized world of data
The data set is referred by binary status, ie. using binary digits 1 and/or 2 to represent all information
abbreviation of binary digit is bit
a series of bits, is used to represent a symbol (eg. A, B, ….) and is predetermined by different information system
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58. Data Coding (cont.)
these symbols, which have specific meaning, is termed as code.
Examples:
Morse code
Machine code
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59. Morse code Example: Morse code YouTube
Morse code uses two code elements, that is a doe and a dash - to represent each character
Morse code is designed for human use, and is done by human operator sending one end to another for decoding so that messages could be understood.
It is used for telegraph purpose
official standard length of dots and dashes are in the ratio of 1:3
see Figure 7.1
Morse translator program
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60. Machine Code Machine Code
Morse code is only good for person-to-person comm. For machine-to-machine, another perfect form of code is needed
Binary code works well in machine-to-machine when they converted into electronic signals; by presenting 0 bits and 1 bits into on or off current flow
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61. Machine Code(cont.) Different coding systems
Again, a series of bits is grouped to represent a symbol
depend on total number of bits required, the unique combination of bits can be expressed as: 2n
where n is number of bits being used
The number of possible combination or characters in a coding system is called:
code points
Different coding systems
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62. Code points
Example:
if a coding system is consists of 5 series of digits, then the coding point is
25 = 32
These unique sequence of bits are referred as character assignments, which generates the following three different types of characters:
1. Alphanumeric characters
2. Format effector characters
3. Control characters
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63. Alphanumeric Characters
are used to present characters such as letters, numerals, and symbols
letters: A, B, C ….
numerals: a, 2, …., 9
symbols: +, - /, *, &, %, #
it should note that these characters may also refer as graphic characters because they can be displayed on a terminal screen and also on hard copies
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64. Format effector characters
uses to control the position of information that is displayed on the screen/printer
Some of the examples in the group are:
tab, backspace
carriage return
line feeds
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65. Control characters 3. Control characters divided into two subgroups
i) device control
uses to control connection of hardware
eg: skip to the top of new page or
eject paper 1/4 of page when stop printing
ii) transmission control
uses to signify if transmission of data is ended or is correctly received from the other end
eg: generate “Bip” sound when paper is out from the fax machine
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66. Types of coding system in telecom.
In this section, we discuss the following types:
1. Baudot code
2. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
3. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
4. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
5. N-out-of-M Code
How to convert them from one to another
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67. Baudot code 1.Baudot code uses 5 bits to represent information
mostly paper tape or punch cards
has no parity bit
two characters of unique functions:
1. Letter shift -change one type of letters to another type
2. Figure shift - a shift results all letters are treated as upper cases
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68. Baudot code (cont.) it has only 58 characters
Disadv: it has no unique representation code of all symbol (why?)
still commonly used technique in
telegraph, teletypwriter & telex
Refer to Figure 7.4
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69. ASCII
2. ASCII
a code system developed by American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
uses 7 bits (ie 128 unique code points)
has unique representation of upper/lower cases, digits, punctuation, and a set of control characters
easy to read and clarify as the different between upper and lower case is just by 1 bit only
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70. ASCII (cont.) the new version of ASCII has 8 bits
for parity BUT is not widely applied in industy
the ASCII code is the most widely used code in computer & telecom network today, thus makes more system become compatible
sequence of representation is
ASCII code is referred as CCITT International code No. 5
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, fromFrench:
See Figure 7.5
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71. EBCDIC 3. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
developed by IBM
uses 8 bits (ie 256 code)
commonly applied in the IBM host machines
sequence bits are arranged as
refer to Figure 7.6
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72. BCD 4. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Usually represent 4 bits
 Other bit combinations are sometimes used for a sign or for other indications (e.g., error or overflow)
has no standard form, thus code representation varies from one manufacturing to another
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73. N/M code 5. N-out-of-M code represented by (M,N)
where M represents bits are used for data transmission, N represent bits are in “1”
uses to detect the lost of bit setting for small number of bits
claimed as an effective method to detect errors than parity bit check
will discuss more of this later
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74. Question: How do we evaluate which code system is more effective?
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75. Code Efficiency Code Efficiency
a technique uses to measure how few bits are used to convey the meaning of a character accurately
measurement:
# of information bits =
# of bits in characters
where information bit is the code point in a code
How it works?
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76. End

77. Code conversion
it is a concept made available to a computer, which is readily perform when encounters
such as converting three-bit code to four-bit code
example
may encounter some difficulty when converting EDCDIC to ASCII (why?)
(how to rectify this problem?)
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78. FIGURE The Morse code.
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79. FIGURE Powers of 2.
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80. FIGURE If even parity is being used, the parity bit is set to 1 when necessary to make the total number of 1 bits in the character an even number. If odd parity is used, the parity bit is set to 1 when necessary to make the total number of 1 bits an odd number.
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81. FIGURE Baudot code.
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82. FIGURE ASCII code.
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83. FIGURE EBCDIC code.
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84. FIGURE 7-7 A method for converting a 3-bit code to a 4-bit code.
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86. Code efficiency Example:
If an 8-bit code that includes one parity check
Then
Code efficiency = 7/8 = 87.5%

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