1. A/D and D/A

2. Overview Introduction oDefinitions oOp amps -- a quick review Digital-to-analog conversions Analog-to-digital conversions Reading: Text, Section 8.8, Chapter 12

3. Introduction to Analog I/O Physical phenomena typically involve analog signals (values taken from the continuous domain) oExamples include temperature, speed, position, pressure, voltage, altitude,... Microprocessors work with digital quantities (values taken from the discrete domain) To interact with analog signals, operate on continuous physical values, conversion between analog and digital values is needed For a digital system to interact with analog systems, conversion between analog and digital values is needed Building blocks to perform the conversions are: oDigital to analog converters (DACs) oAnalog to digital converters (ADCs) Cont..

4. Introduction to Analog I/O Cont..

5. Introduction to Analog I/O Transducers convert energy from one form to another ( E.g., convert mechanical motion to a voltage waveform) oSensors  Potentiometer (position)  Strain gauge, piezoelectric device (force)  Thermistor, thermocouple (temperature)  Photoconductive cell, phototransistor (light)  Current transformer, SENSEFET (current)  Microphone (sound) oActuators  Solenoids, relays, speakers  Darlington transistors, Triacs, SCRs, Thyristors Cont..

6. Introduction to Analog I/O Transducers convert energy from one form to another ( E.g., convert mechanical motion to a voltage waveform) oSensors  Potentiometer (position)  Strain gauge, piezoelectric device (force)  Thermistor, thermocouple (temperature)  Photoconductive cell, phototransistor (light)  Current transformer, SENSEFET (current)  Microphone (sound) oActuators  Solenoids, relays, speakers  Darlington transistors, Triacs, SCRs, Thyristors Cont..

7. Introduction to Analog I/O Signal conditioning oMost transducers (especially sensors) output low-level signals  Usually less than 1V, may be millivolts or microvolts oSignals are often noisy oFor these reasons, we usually need to apply adjust (“condition”) a signal before A/D conversion  Amplification  Filtering  Linearization Operational amplifiers (op amps) oUseful in the design of DACs and ADCs because of their performance characteristics Cont..

8. Introduction to Analog I/O  Open loop gain of several hundred thousand  Input current approximately 0, output impedance approximately zero Fig. 12.2 Op amp circuits Cont..

9. Introduction to Analog I/O Definitions (for analog electrical signals) oOffset: minimum value oSpan: maximum value – minimum value  Some common spans:  range of 0 V to 5 V: span = 5 V  range of –12 V to 12 V: span = 24 V  range of 4 mA to 20 mA: span = 16 mA Definitions (for ADCs and DACs) oTypically, the digital representation is an unsigned n-bit integer oResolution: span / 2n (also known as the step size) (this is the weight of the LSB) Cont..

10. Introduction to Analog I/O (sometimes resolution is simply given as n) oExample: Analog signal in range +5 to -5 volts, 8-bit ADC:  Offset = – 5 V  Span = 10 V  Step size = 10 / 256 = 39.1 mV  Notice that the MSB has a weight of 5 V (=span/2), and the LSB has a weight of.0391 V

11. Digital to Analog Conversion A DAC takes an n-bit digital input and output a corresponding analog voltage DAC systems normally consist of three components: oA reference voltage oThe DAC itself oAn op amp for output buffering Ideal DAC would convert an n-bit code Bn-1... Bn-1 B1 B0 to output voltage as shown below: oVout= Span ( Bn-1 2-1 + Bn-2 2-2 +... B0 2-n ) + Offset oVout will be a fractional value of the "full scale" voltage (span- offset)  Maximum is the digital value of 111111…111 (all 1s) Cont..

12. Digital to Analog Conversion DAC system relationship (Sho87) Cont..

13. Digital to Analog Conversion Weighted resistor DACs oUse an op amp and a current divider network to implement the conversion function Cont..

14. Digital to Analog Conversion Interfacing DAC to microprocessor system oIn principle, any DAC can be interfaced to any microprocessor system oIn practice, some combinations of DACs and microprocessors are easier than others and require much simpler hardware and software in the interface oInterfacing an 8-bit DAC to an 8-bit microprocessor is easy:  Write to port connected to DAC and signal DAC to begin oWhen DAC word > uP word, some problems can exist  How do we interface a 12-bit DAC to an 8-bit I/O bus without having glitches in the analog output?  Must use a double buffering scheme, as described in the text but best illustrated from [Sho87] Cont..

15. Digital to Analog Conversion Double buffering example of DAC interface [Sho87] Cont..

16. Digital to Analog Conversion D/A with the 68HC11 oNo on-board D/A oMust use an external converter  Ex. DAC0808 8-bit D/A Connect to a parallel I/O port See example circuit on CEL web pages

17. Analog to Digital Conversion The function of ADCs is to quantize the analog voltage and then output the corresponding digital code value As with the DAC conversion, a full-scale analog voltage will be divided into 2n quantization levels or steps for an n-bit digital coding scheme Slow approach -- counting conversion Counting converter [Sho87] Cont..

18. Analog to Digital Conversion Successive approximation is a much faster method Figure 12.6 Successive approximation ADC

19. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 The ADC system in the 68HC11 uses a variation of the successive approximation converter oDAC is replaced by a series of capacitors that are charged to the voltages that correspond to the weights of each bit  Much like a capacitive ladder network oCapacitors are charged during a sample period then held during the approximation phase oEach capacitor starting with the one that corresponds to the MSB is switched in turn into the SAR circuit for the comparison process Cont..

20. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 Capacitor ladder network for A/D conversions [HC11] Cont..

21. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 68HC11 A/D oSupports 8 input ADC channels oChannels are located on port E  Channel 0 on PE0 -- not available on EVBU due to use of jumper J2!  Channel 1 on PE1, etc. oIn performing A/D conversions, 4 conversions are performed as a "block," each taking 32 cycles -- 128 cycles total oControl registers:  OPTION ($1039) ADPU and CSEL bits  ADCTL ($1030) Control and status information Cont..

22. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11  ADR1 - ADR4 ($1031 - $1034) Result registers To enable A/D operations on the HC11 oEnable the capacitor charging operations  The system charge pump must be enabled at reset by setting the A/D power up bit (ADPU) in the system OPTION register  This is used to charge the capacitors for the successive- approximation circuit  Disabled by default to conserve power  After enabling charge pump, the MCU should wait at least 100 usec before initiating A/D conversion (This allows capacitor voltages to stabilize) Cont..

23. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 To enable A/D operations on the HC11 oSelect clock for successive-approximation register (SAR) circuitry  A/D can use the E clock or an internal RC circuit Use E clock if it is greater than 750 KHz (it is for the EVBU!)  CSEL bit in OPTION register selects clock source (0 = E clock, 1 = RC circuit) oMust also apply high and low reference voltages (VRH and VRL) to the chip that fixes span and offset -- 3 volt span is recommended minimum (VDD and VSS hardwired to the reference inputs on the EVBU) Cont..

24. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 Single vs. continuous conversion oSingle conversion  HC11 performs one set of conversions and stops Remember that one set is actually 4 conversions  To select this, set the SCAN bit in ADCTL to 0  Writing to ADCTL initiates conversion Also clears the CCF bit  When conversion is complete, CCF bit is set No interrupt, so you must poll Read data from ADR1-ADR4  To start another conversion, you must write to ADCTL again Cont..

25. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 oContinuous conversion  Set SCAN bit to 1  Writing to ADCTL initiates conversion Also clears CCF  CCF set after first block of 4 conversions is complete  ADR1 - ADR4 continue to be updated Round-robin fashion Each register will be updated every 128 cycles (32 cycles for each conversion) oWhen you read a register, value may be up to 128 cycles old Cont..

26. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 Single channel vs. multiple channel oSingle channel  Channel is sampled 4 consecutive times and the resulting 4 conversions are placed into ADR1-4 Each conversion takes 32 clock cycles  Set MULT bit to 0 in ADCTL register  Use CC, CB, and CA bits in ADCTL to select the channel to be converted Always set CD to 0 (CD=1 is used for factory testing)  Can use this with single or continuous conversion Allows you to sample a single input every 32 cycles (62,500 samples per second with 2MHz E-clock) Cont..

27. The Analog to Digital subsystem in the 68HC11 oMultiple channels  Conversions for 4 channels will be performed  Set the MULT bit in ADCTL to 1  Use bit CC of the ADCTL to specify which group of 4 channels is to be converted CC = 0 -- inputs 0-3 in ADR1-4 CC = 1 -- inputs 4-7 in ADR1-4 CD should always be 0, CB and CA are don’t cares  Can use this with single or continuous conversion Each input is sampled every 128 clock cycles (15,625 samples per second)

28. Summary oTransducers oSignal conditioning oD/A conversion  Must use external converter for HC11 oA/D conversion  HC11 has built-in A/D converter Uses port E Can convert 8 channels Operation: Enable charge pump, select clock source during initialization Select single or continuous conversion, single or multiple channels Initiate conversion by writing to ADCTL Wait for CCF flag to indicate conversion is complete Read results