1. Theory of Mind: Autism as Mindblindness? Dr Jason Low School of Psychology Victoria University of Wellington

2. Georges de la Tour, The Fortune Teller

3. ToM and the full range of mental states Theory of mind is one quintessential ability that makes us human Theory of mind is one quintessential ability that makes us human Test of Tom have been found to be effective as markers of pervasive developmental disorders (e.g., autism) Test of Tom have been found to be effective as markers of pervasive developmental disorders (e.g., autism) Autism as mind-blindness Autism as mind-blindness

4. 1. Mental Physical Distinction Wellman & Estes (1986) Wellman & Estes (1986) Listen to two stories Listen to two stories A is thinking about a dog vs B is holding a dog A is thinking about a dog vs B is holding a dog Who can pat the dog? Who can pat the dog? Baron-Cohen (1989): 3-4 yr olds vs. children with autism with vma of 4 yrs Baron-Cohen (1989): 3-4 yr olds vs. children with autism with vma of 4 yrs

5. 2. Appearance Reality Distinction Flavell, Green & Flavell (1986) Flavell, Green & Flavell (1986) Sponge-rock Sponge-rock Baron-Cohen (1989) Baron-Cohen (1989) 3-4 yrs vs cwa (4yrs vma) 3-4 yrs vs cwa (4yrs vma) Autism difficult with understanding different between subjective and objective reality Autism difficult with understanding different between subjective and objective reality

6. 3. First Order False Belief Tasks Inferring one person’s mental state Inferring one person’s mental state Unexpected Contents Unexpected Contents Unexpected Transfer Unexpected Transfer Sally-Anne Experiment (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985) Sally-Anne Experiment (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985) Critical question: “Where will Sally look for her marble?” Critical question: “Where will Sally look for her marble?” Problems: general intellectual understanding? Memory problems? Problems: general intellectual understanding? Memory problems? Control groups: normal & downs + Where did Sally put the marble in the beginning? & Where is the marble now? Control groups: normal & downs + Where did Sally put the marble in the beginning? & Where is the marble now?

7. 4. Seeing leads to knowing Where does knowledge come from, and who knows what, and who doesn’t know what Where does knowledge come from, and who knows what, and who doesn’t know what 3 year olds grasp principle 3 year olds grasp principle Baron-Cohen & Goodhart (1994) – autism at chance level only Baron-Cohen & Goodhart (1994) – autism at chance level only

8. 5. Production of range of mental state words CWA produce fewer mental state words in their spontaneous description of picture stories (e.g., Baron- Cohen et al., 1986) CWA produce fewer mental state words in their spontaneous description of picture stories (e.g., Baron- Cohen et al., 1986)

9. 6. Spontaneous pretend play Lower frequency amongst cwa (e.g., Lewis & Boucher, 1988) Lower frequency amongst cwa (e.g., Lewis & Boucher, 1988)

10. 7. Understanding how belief causes emotion Emotions can be caused by situation (falling over and crying) Emotions can be caused by situation (falling over and crying) But can also be caused by mental states (desires and beliefs) But can also be caused by mental states (desires and beliefs) CWA with vma of 3 have difficulty with mental states as causes of emotion (Baron-Cohen, 1991) CWA with vma of 3 have difficulty with mental states as causes of emotion (Baron-Cohen, 1991)

11. 8. Mentalistic interpretation of gaze Baron-Cohen et al. (1995) Baron-Cohen et al. (1995) Which one is Charlie going to take? Which one is Charlie going to take? What is Charlie looking at? What is Charlie looking at?

12. 9. Physical sabotage and mental deception Sodian & Frith (1994) Sodian & Frith (1994)

13. 10. Figurative speech Baron-Cohen (1997) Baron-Cohen (1997) Metaphor, sarcasm, jokes Metaphor, sarcasm, jokes

14. 11. Pragmatics Sensitivity to speaker and listener mental states Sensitivity to speaker and listener mental states Yes Bleed

15. 12. Imagination Draw a pretend looking person (e.g., a person with two heads). Draw a pretend looking person (e.g., a person with two heads).

16. Components of a Theory of Mind

17. Mind-blindness or executive dysfunction? Mechanism which enables the normal person to shift attention flexibly, inhibit stereotypical responses, generate goal directed behaviour and solve problems in a planful manner Mechanism which enables the normal person to shift attention flexibly, inhibit stereotypical responses, generate goal directed behaviour and solve problems in a planful manner ToM correlates with tests of executive functioning (e.g., Tower of Hanoi) ToM correlates with tests of executive functioning (e.g., Tower of Hanoi)

18. Problems with a strong EFT account Executive dysfunction occurs in a large number of other clinical disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, OCD, Tourettes, anxiety disorder, ADHD Executive dysfunction occurs in a large number of other clinical disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, OCD, Tourettes, anxiety disorder, ADHD A narrower executive dysfunction? – in autism there is a deficit in disengaging from the salience of reality A narrower executive dysfunction? – in autism there is a deficit in disengaging from the salience of reality But in a number of tests where cwa have to disengage from reality, the pass! But in a number of tests where cwa have to disengage from reality, the pass! Leslie’s False photograph test Leslie’s False photograph test

19. So what of ToM? ToM is not reducible to executive function ToM is not reducible to executive function EFT deficits may co-occur with mind-blindness because both share same brain origins (frontal lobes) EFT deficits may co-occur with mind-blindness because both share same brain origins (frontal lobes) Two cognitive deficits may be separately responsible for different types of behaviours in autism Two cognitive deficits may be separately responsible for different types of behaviours in autism But EFT researchers point to modified false photo test with strong EFT demands (see Russell, Saltmarsh, & Hill, 1999) But EFT researchers point to modified false photo test with strong EFT demands (see Russell, Saltmarsh, & Hill, 1999)