1. 1 Distributed Generation and Power Quality

2. 2 Distributed Generation Distributed generation (DG) or distributed generation resources (DR) –Backup generation to improve reliability –Economics and/or diversity of fuel sources –Perhaps can relieve T&D system overloads in short term, especially if load growth is uncertain - Effect the power quality

3. 3 Interconnection Large units 10 MW and up –set up as a small power plant connected to transmission network –may be steam cycle or combined cycle –may include co-generation Medium units 1-10 MW –may connect to distribution or subtransmission line –may be combustion turbine

4. 4 Interconnection (cont’d) Small units (below 1 MW) –connect to distribution –may be reciprocating engine (diesel or natural gas) or microturbine Unconventional generation includes fuel cells, solar photovoltaic, wind turbines –need to be considered separately

5. 5 Fuel Cells Electrochemical cells (not a heat engine) –Net reaction: 2H 2 + O 2  2H 2 O –PEM (proton exchange membrane) cell: A K A = anode (negative) K = cathode (positive) PEM = proton exchange membrane H2H2 O2O2 2H 2 O 4e -

6. 6 Fuel Cells –Net reaction: 2H 2 + O 2  2H 2 O –PEM (proton exchange membrane) cell –Anode: 2H 2  4H + +4e - –Cathode: O 2 + 4H + + 4e -  2H 2 O A K H2H2 O2O2 2H 2 O 4e - 4H + Catalyst 4e - I 0.7 V

7. 7 Fuel cells –Diagrams are oversimplified to illustrate the basic idea –In practice, stacks of cells must be used for power level generation –Stacks produce DC which is fed to a power electronic inverter V dc a b c

8. 8 a b c IGBT or power transistor, e.g. Flyback or free-wheel diode Passive filter

9. 9 Photovoltaic –Stacks of solar photovoltaic cells produce DC which is fed to a power electronic inverter, just as with fuel cells. V dc a b c –Issue is high installed cost, but breakthrough may be possible

10. 10 Wind turbines Each turbine may be ~ 1 MW with multiple turbines in a “wind farm” Small farm ~ 5 MW connected to distribution or subtransmission Large farm ~100 MW connected to transmission Issues are voltage regulation and power fluctuations

11. Basic Components of Wind Energy Systems 1)Turbine blades 2) Turbine hub 3) Shaft 4) Gear box 5) Generator 6) Nacelle 7) Transformer 8) Control 9) Tower 10) Foundation # Drive train, usually includes a gearbox and a generator

12. Major Turbine Components Figure. Major turbine components.

13. Relationship of Wind Speed to Power Production # Power production from a wind turbine is a function of wind speed. # In general, most wind turbines begin to produce power at wind speeds of about 4 m/s (9 mph), achieve rated power at approximately 15 m/s (29 mph), and stop power production at 25 m/s (56mph). # Cut-in wind speed: The speed at which the turbine starts power production. # Cut-out wind speed: The speed at which the turbine stops power production.

14. Pitch Control Method  1+T d S 1 90 0 PI controller ω r + - ω IGref 1 TiSTiS K p (1+ ) K p =252 T i =0.3 10  /S Rate limiter Figure. Pitch control system model. # Usually the main purpose of using a pitch controller with wind turbine is to maintain a constant output power at the terminal of the generator when the wind speed is over the rated speed.

15. 15 Machine Type Synchronous machine can easily sustain an “inadvertent island” wherein it attempts to supply nearby loads Induction generator can also, but is somewhat less likely (unless capacitors in the island temporily supply reactive power, the voltage will tend to collapse)

16. 16 Mechanically driven generators Synchronous generator directly connected to power system (similar to central station generation) Induction or asynchronous generator directly connected to power system –Induction machine driven faster than synchronous speed will generate real power but still absorb reactive power from electrical system –Doubly-fed induction generator:

17. 17 Wind generators Conventional generators are almost all synchronous machines with a wound field Wind generators may be induction generators –conventional: fed only from stator so always draws reactive power from electrical system –doubly fed: feed rotor winding from a power electronic converter to achieve some var control

18. Figure. Fixed speed wind turbine generator (squirrel cage induction generator).

19. 19 Wind generator interface Power electronic converter can be used as an interface between either induction or synchronous generator Converter controls may provide significant help with managing voltage fluctuations

20. Figure. Variable-speed wind turbine with doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). Figure. Variable-speed wind turbine with squirrel cage induction generator.

21. 21 –On a weak system, voltage fluctuations are difficult to manage –Power fluctuations will “drag” nearby generators on regulation and tie lines (forcing other generators to make up for the fluctuations WF Tie Steam Hydro Loads

22. 22 –The steam turbines may be base loaded, so the hydro and the tie line will make up for both load fluctuations and the wind-farm generation fluctuations –Net effect is that wind is good energy source but not as good for firm power production WF Tie Steam Hydro Loads

23. 23 Trip DG Fault Neighboring loads Inadvertent Island: DG attempts to energize the island, feeding fault, complicating protective relay coordination

24. 24 PQ issues affected by DG Sustained interruptions –DG can provide backup power for critical loads by operating stand-alone during outage and (perhaps) in parallel during normal conditions –Voltage regulation limits how much DG a distribution feeder can handle –Harmonics are a concern with synch generators and inverters (less so with modern inverters) –Voltage sags: DG helps some but not all cases

25. 25 115 kV 12.47 kV TRANSMISSION DISTRIBUTION Radial Line DG DG on radial distribution line needs to disconnect early in reclosing interval

26. 26 Relaying considerations Reclosing on a synchronous machine (motor or generator) directly connected to power system can mechanically damage the unit (e.g., shaft is stressed -> cracks) DG infeed may reduce the reach of overcurrent relays –DG feeds fault, so utility current is fault current minus DG contribution

27. 27 1 1 I ut X ut X1X1 X dg X2X2 3  SC I dg =0 IfIf VxVx No DG:

28. 28 1 1 I ut X ut X1X1 X dg X2X2 3  SC I dg IFIF VxVx With DG, utility sees less current:

29. 29 115 kV 12.47 kV Put recloser here DISTRIBUTION Radial Line DG Only one DG: obvious solution to several problems

30. 30 115 kV 12.47 kV DG “Sympathetic” tripping of this circuit breaker (not desired) due to backfeed from DG Fault Solution is to use directional overcurrent relays at substation (need voltage polarization for phase angle reference, which is extra expense)