1. Tetrapods: Origins & Radiation PART II VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY (VZ Lecture10 – Fall 2012 Althoff - reference PJH Chapters 8 &9)

2. Moving on Land Locomotion on land is energetically more costly than in water. Walking on land takes more energy than flying which takes more than swimming Most tetrapods accomplish locomotion by moving diagonal pairs of legs together (see Fig. 8-7, p174). Even humans retain “some” of this (e.g., right arm forward when left leg strides forward) Primitive mode exhibited by modern day salamanders: forces comes from ______ muscles, _____________ muscles Much advanced: swimming, walking, & jumping modes by frogs  highly specialized ____ muscles

3. Advancements: Primitive tetrapods  Amniotes Amniotes first to have “the _____”…where each limb moves independently in succession, usually with 3 feet on the ground at a time The ______ is a sped-up walk….only 1 or 2 feet on the ground at a time. ______ is faster movement yet, involves diagonal pairs of limbs moving together. Then, a new faster mode is the ________—found in some mammals. Jumping off hind legs and landing on forelegs with flexion of the back contributing to the length of the stride.

5. Eating on Land Early tetrapods: wide, flat skulls and elongated snout resulting in most of tooth row in front of eyes ________: Fishes  small and bony Tetrapods  large and muscular… increasing manipulation of food --some (frogs, lizards salamanders) can project tongue to capture prey ______________: only in terrestrial vertebrates advantage  moisten “dry” food, start digestion. Other specializations for some species (i.e., venom: lizards/snakes

6. Changes in Branchiomeric Musculature (from ancestral pharyngeal arches) With loss of gills, much of musculature of associated with gill movement has been lost in tetrapods Exception: gill levers. In fishes, the muscle mass is a single unit (the cucullaris). In tetrapods, it becomes the tapezius (runs from top of the neck and shoulders to the shoulder girdle) Major branchiomeric muscles of tetrapods are associated with feeding and feeding only. This mean those associated with the mandibiles (ex. crushing food in some tetrapods) and hyoid arches (help open mouth and aids in swallowing food) (see Fig. 8-10, p179 for generalized tetrapod condition)

7. Breathing Air: changes from nonamniotic to amniotic tetrapods Nonamniotic tetrapods: uses __________-pressure buccal pump to inflate lungs. Lungs are “simple” Amniotic tetrapods: use ____________-pressure aspiration pump. Inhalation: rib cage expands by hypaxial muscles sucking air in Exhalation: compression of, mainly achieved by elastic return of rib cage, reduction of lung capacity Amniotes: lungs subdivided, usually complex resulting in significant increase in _____________ for gas exchange

8. Breathing: INSPIRATION Rib cage moves up & out Diaphragm contracts and moves down Pressure in lungs decreases—air rushes in.

9. Rib cage moves down and in Diaphragm relaxes and moves up Pressure in lungs increases and air is pushed out Breathing: EXPIRATION

10. Pumping Blood Uphill & Double Circulation In H 2 0, blood is weightless…only significant challenge to the heart is fluid resistance Circulation more difficult for terrestrial animals: a) blood tends to pool in low spots b) must be forced through the veins, back up to the heart --this requires ________ blood pressure Another tetrapod advancement: double-circuit cardiovascular system: a) __________ circuit  rich O 2 blood to body b) ____________ circult  low O 2 blood to lungs

11. Fig. 8-11 p180 PJH Atrium always completed divided Ventricle sometimes “fixed” barrier division

12. Sensory System Advancements Switch is from “liquid” transmission medium to “air” Lateral line system of fishes won’t work in air medium because air is not dense enough to stimulate the mechanical receptors there If molecules light enough to be suspended in air, then chemical systems work fine for sense of smell Vision and hearing in air can offer advantages over those in a liquid medium Vision: easier on land because light is transferred through air with less disturbance than through H 2 O Vision: most tetrapods re-shape lens to focus (snakes move lens to focus eye…like fishes)

13. Fig. 8-15 p186 PJH Hearing “middle ear” in tetrapods serves to amplify sound Fluids of inner ear compressed, with the waves stimulating hair cells in organ of Corti (within lagena… cochlea in mammals) ___________ much enlarged in tetrapods    lagena FROG LIZARD

14. Fig. 8-16 p186 PJH Some sensitivities up to 1 million trillion (10 15 ) part of air Mammals…with very highly developed olfaction…aided by presence of _____________: thin bone lined with olfactory epithelium vomeronasal organ (Jacobson’s organ) Olfaction maxilloturbinates GENERALIZED MAMMAL CONDITION UNGULATE CONDITION vomeronasal organ

15. Dry Environments: Must conserve H 2 0 Losses through body surfaces (skin) and respiratory system…and through the kidney Partially overcome rapid skin water loss with increased thickness (in amniotes compared to fishes and amphibians) of ___________________ (keratinized epidermal cells) These keratinized cells are: a) insoluble in water (providing some “water- proofing” b) resist physical wear However, lipids in skin most responsible for limiting evaporative water loss

16. Fig. 8-18 p189 PJH

17. The Energy “Game” : 4 major “external” influences  ________________________  ________________________  ________________________  ________________________ the impact of all of these can be addressed by the animals behavior….!!