2. Phase Changes

3. The boiling point is the temperature at which the (equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure. The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.

4. The critical temperature (T c ) is the temperature above which the gas cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how great the applied pressure. The critical pressure (P c ) is the minimum pressure that must be applied to bring about liquefaction at the critical temperature.

5. Where’s Waldo? Can you find… The Triple Point? Critical pressure? Critical temperature? Where fusion occurs? Where vaporization occurs? Melting point (at 1 atm)? Boiling point (at 6 atm)? Carbon Dioxide

6. Melting Freezing H 2 O (s) H 2 O (l) The melting point of a solid or the freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium

7. Sublimation Deposition H 2 O (s) H 2 O (g) Molar heat of sublimation (ΔH sub ) is the energy required to sublime 1 mole of a solid. ΔH sub = Δ H fus + Δ H vap ( Hess’s Law)

8. Molar heat of fusion (ΔH fus ) is the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid substance.

10. Sample Problem How much heat is required to change 36 g of H 2 O from -8 deg C to 120 deg C? Step 1: Heat the iceQ=mcΔT Q = 36 g x 2.06 J/g deg C x 8 deg C = 593.28 J = 0.59 kJ Step 2: Convert the solid to liquidΔH fusion Q = 2.0 mol x 6.01 kJ/mol = 12 kJ Step 3: Heat the liquidQ=mcΔT Q = 36g x 4.184 J/g deg C x 100 deg C = 15063 J = 15 kJ

11. Sample Problem How much heat is required to change 36 g of H 2 O from -8 deg C to 120 deg C? Step 4: Convert the liquid to gasΔH vaporization Q = 2.0 mol x 44.01 kJ/mol = 88 kJ Step 5: Heat the gasQ=mcΔT Q = 36 g x 2.02 J/g deg C x 20 deg C = 1454.4 J = 1.5 kJ Now, add all the steps together 0.59 kJ + 12 kJ + 15 kJ + 88 kJ + 1.5 kJ = 118 kJ

12. Free Energy and Spontaneous Reactions Free Energy: energy that is available to do work No process can be made 100% efficient Energy can only be obtained if the reaction occurs Spontaneous Reactions: reactions that occur naturally and that favor the formation of products at the specified conditions Non-spontaneous Reactions: reactions that do not favor the formation of products at the specified conditions

13. In nearly all reversible reactions, one reaction is favored over the other Spontaneity does not refer to how fast reactants go to products Sugar + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water (slow reaction-takes thousands of year to go to completion, but goes fast when heat is added) Changing temperature or pressure may determine whether or not a reaction is spontaneous