1. Basic principles of volcano radiometry Robert Wright Hawai’i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology

2. Topics Heat and temperature Measuring lava temperatures remotely Measuring actual lava temperatures remotely

3. What is “temperature”? Internal energy = microscopic energy (kinetic + potential) associated with the random, disordered motion of atoms and molecules contained in a piece of matter “Heat” is this energy (or part of it) in transit When a body is heated its internal energy increases (either kinetic or potential) Temperature = measure of average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance

4. Why would we want to quantify temperature? Volcanism synonymous with heat Knowledge of the temperature of an active lava body allows us to quantify: Lava flow cooling and motion Volcanic energy/magma budgets Lava eruption rates Variations in thermal energy output have been shown to be a proxy for changes in the intensity of volcanic eruptions, and can be used to track the development of eruptions, and transitions between eruptive phases Measurements of thermal emission allow the chemistry of volcanic materials to be determined Power (MW)

5. How can we measure temperature? Can perform in-situ measurements, although this has its drawbacks Localised in space and time Dangerous (or at least uncomfortable) Not as accurate as you might think (equilibration times, instrument “trauma”….) Fortunately, we can calculate the temperature of an object without touching it

6. M l = spectral radiant exitance (W m -2 m -1 ) T = temperature (K) = wavelength (m) c = speed of light = 2.997925  10 8 m s -1 h = Planck’s constant = 6.6256  10 -34 W s 2 k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38054  10 -23 W s K -1 Quantifying Blackbody Radiation Collisions cause electrons in atoms/molecules to become excited, and photons to be emitted In this way internal energy converted into electromagnetic energy Heated solids produce continuous spectra dependent only on temperature How can we quantify the relationship between internal kinetic energy (temperature) and emission of radiation? Planck’s blackbody radiation law is a mathematical description of the spectral distribution of radiation emitted from a perfect radiator (blackbody) M l = 2  hc 2 5 [exp( ch / kT )-1]

7. As before but…… M l = spectral radiant exitance (W m -2  m -1 ) *C 1 = 3.74151  10 8 W m -2  m -4 *C 2 = 1.43879  10 4  m K = wavelength (  m) *  of C 1 and C 2, 0.0027% and 0.0042%, respectively Quantifying Blackbody Radiation A more useful form…. M l = C1 C1 5 [exp( C 2 / T )-1]

8. Quantifying Blackbody Radiation Wien’s Displacement Law As the temperature of the emitting surface increases so the wavelength of maximum emission shifts to shorter wavelengths Stefan-Boltzmann Law The radiant power from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of temperature m = b / T  m =  m b = 2898  m K M T = s T 4 M T = W m -2 s = 5.669  10 -8 W m -2 K -4

9. Quantifying Blackbody Radiation Wien’s Law: turning point of the Planck function Stefan’s Law: integral of the Planck function Planck’s Blackbody Radiation Law: spectral distribution of energy radiated by a blackbody as a function of temperature

10. Quantifying Blackbody Radiation The spectral radiant exitance from an active lava varies by orders of magnitude Remote measurements of radiated energy provide a route for monitoring thermal emission and quantifying surface temperature

11. Wavelengths of interest Given the temperatures of terrestrial lavas, we are interested in the wavelength region from ~1.0 to 14  m

12. Spectral radiance Satellite sensors measure spectral radiance, not spectral exitance L = M / p L is the power emitted per unit area, per unit solid angle, in a given wavelength interval Common units are W m -2 sr -1  m -1 Regarding angles…… Degree, radian, steradian (sr) A steradian is the ratio of the spherical area to the square of the radius A s /r 2 = 4  w We aren’t interested in hemispherical emissive power, rather the emissive power in a particular direction

13. Satellite radiometry Radiometry: measurement of optical radiation (0.01 – 1000  m) Satellite radiometry: radiometry from space! Many different satellite sensors currently in orbit that can make the appropriate measurements But satellite radiometry of volcanoes is complicated by two things: Lavas are not blackbodies Earth has an atmosphere

14. Calculating temperature from spectral radiance Invert modified Planck function to obtain temperature from spectral radiance So far, so good, but……. Planck’s blackbody radiation law describes the spectral emissive power of a blackbody T = C2C2 ln[1+ C 1 /( 5 L l )]

15. What is a blackbody? A perfect radiator, “one that radiates the maximum number of photons in a unit time from a unit area in a specified spectral interval into a hemisphere that any body at thermodynamic equilibrium at the same temperature can radiate.” All incident radiation is absorbed – Ideal absorber Emits energy at all wavelengths and in all directions at maximum rate possible for given temperature – Ideal radiator

16. Objects with the same kinetic temperature can have very different radiative temperatures Differences in apparent temperature of bodies with the same kinetic temperature tells us about differences in their emissivity Temperature of a surface can’t be determined from spectral radiance unless we know its emissivity Temperature and emissivity

17. ASTER (14, 12, 10; R, G, B) Reds = rocks higher in silica Blues = rocks lower in silica (basalt) Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia

18. Blackbodies, Greybodies, & Selective Radiators Emissivity – capability to emit radiation Blackbody:  = 1 Whitebody:  = 0 Greybody:  < 1 Selective radiator  < 1 Can be determined in the lab (ask Mike) e ( l ) = M l (material, K) M l (blackbody, K)

19. Emissivity of some common lavas If you know how the emissivity of your target varies as a function of wavelength you can correct for its effect Libraries of spectral reflectance (emissivity) available at http://speclib.jpl.nasa.gov/

20. Almost there…… Inversion of Planck function only gives Apparent Radiant Temperature Apparent Radiant Temperature < True Kinetic Temperature Must account for emissivity AND the imperfect transmission of radiance by the atmosphere T kin = c2c2 l ln[1+ c 1 t l e l /( l 5 L l )]

21. Calculate atmospheric transmissivity over a wavelength range using radiative transfer model e.g. MODTRAN/LOWTRAN Model specifies atmospheric properties Season (summer/winter/spring/fall) Elevation Location (maritime, urban, polar…) Aerosols (urban, agricultural) Gas concentrations ( e.g. CO 2 ppm) Scattering model ( i.e. multiple or single) L l [ T (surface) ] T, H 2 O, SO 2 …. Altitude L * Atmospheric correction methods 

22. Radiative transfer modelling with parameters determined by simultaneous meteorological (radiosonde) data Atmospheric correction methods L l [ T (surface) ] T, H 2 O, SO 2 …. Altitude L * 

23. The transmissivity of a model atmosphere MODTRAN very easy to use, but… It is a model!

24. The transmissivity of real atmospheres The effect of the atmosphere varies depending on the geography of the volcano Volcanoes in low, wet, regions more affected than those in cold/dry regions

25. Thermal remote sensing of active volcanoes Topics for the rest of the day: Which satellite sensors provide the necessary data? How can we analyse lava surface temperatures, physical/chemical properties in detail using these data? How can these radiance/temperature data be used for detecting and monitoring volcanic thermal unrest?