1. Mission Aircrew Course Chapter 8: Navigation and Position Determination (Feb 2005)

2. Aircrew Tasks
O-0204 LOCATE A POINT ON A MAP USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE (S)
O-0205 LOCATE A POINT ON A MAP USING THE CAP GRID SYSTEM (S)
O-2003 GRID SECTIONAL CHARTS (P)
O-2011 OPERATE THE VOR AND DME (O)
O-2012 OPERATE THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (O)
O-2013 PLOT A ROUTE ON A SECTIONAL CHART (O)
O-2024 DEMONSTRATE USE OF SECTIONAL CHARTS (S)
O-2025 TRACK AND RECORD POSITION ON SECTIONALS AND MAPS (S)
P-2012 IDENTIFY CONTROLLED AND SPECIAL USE AIRSPACES ON A SECTIONAL (O)

3. Objectives
Discuss considerations for operating near controlled airports, and identify them on a sectional. {O; 8.4}
Discuss the following special use airspaces, and identify them on a sectional:
Prohibited and Restricted Areas {O; 8.4.1}
Military operating areas and training routes {O; 8.4.2}
Discuss the use and limitations of the following:
ADF {O; 8.1}
VOR {O; 8.2}
DME {O; 8.3}
GPS {O; 8.5}

4. Objectives (Con’t)
Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two airports: {O; 8.8.1}
Plot the course
Identify check points along the route
Calculate how long it should take to get from one airport to the other, flying at 100 kts with no wind
Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual, grid a sectional. {O & P; and Attachment 1}
Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized Latitude and Longitude Gird System to draw a search grid. {O & P; 8.11}

5. Objectives Define the following navigation terms: {S; 8.1}
Course, heading and ground track
Nautical mile and knot
Latitude and Longitude
Given a map or sectional: identify an object given its latitude and longitude; and given a position determine its latitude and longitude. {S; 8.2.3}
Given a sectional chart, locate and discuss: {S; 8.6}
Physical features such as topographical details
Towns and cities
Highways and roads
Towers; determine height in both MSL and AGL
Airways and radio aids to navigation
Airports and airport data

6. Objectives (Con’t)
Given a sectional chart, discuss the information found in the Legend. {S; 8.6}
Given a sectional chart, locate Maximum Elevation Figures and state their meaning. {S; 8.7.2}
Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two points on the chart: {S; 8.8}
Determine the cardinal heading
Determine the distance between the two points (nautical and statute miles)
Given data from navaids, track the current position of an aircraft and determine the position of a ground feature (sectional and map). {S; 8.9}
State the size of a full and a one-quarter standardized grid. {S; 8.10}

7. Objectives (Con’t)
Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual, grid a sectional.
{O & P; and Attachment 1}
Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized Latitude and Longitude Gird System to draw a search grid. {O & P; 8.11}

8. Navigation Terms
Course - planned or actual path of the aircraft over the ground
True course
Magnetic course
Heading - direction the aircraft is pointing
Ground track – actual path of the aircraft over the ground
Nautical mile (nm) - measurement used in air navigation
Knots (kts) - nautical miles per hour
8.1
Objective 8.1 – Define the following navigation terms: course, heading and ground track; nautical mile and knot; latitude and longitude.
Nautical mile: 6076 feet
Statute mile: feet
difference: feet
To convert nautical miles to statute miles, multiply nautical miles by Sameo for knots to mph (going 100 knots = 115 mph)

9. Locating a Position Use a system of imaginary lines
Some run north and south (latitude)
Others run east and west (longitude)
Where they cross defines a point on the earth
By convention, latitude is stated first
Points are defined as x degrees of latitude and y degrees of longitude.

10. Latitude Lines of latitude run east and west
Latitude starts with 0°at the equator
Latitude increases to 90°north at the North Pole and 90°south at the South Pole
Great Circle and Lesser Circles
North Latitudes
The Equator is a Great Circle and all other lines of latitude are lesser circles.
Equator
South Latitudes

11. Longitude Longitude has to start someplace
West Longitude
East Longitude
Longitude has to start someplace
So 0° is in Greenwich England
East and west longitude increase as you move away from the Prime Meridian
The Prime Meridian is a Great Circle and all other lines of longitude are lesser circles.
Prime Meridian

12. Longitude
Greenwich (Prime) Meridian is zero degrees longitude on one side of the earth
East and west longitude increase until they meet at 180° on the other side of the earth
All line of longitude are great circles (same length)
Lines of Longitude
Prime Meridian or 0 degrees
8.2.3
Objective 8.2 – Given a map or sectional: identify an object given its latitude and longitude; given a position determine its latitude and longitude.

13. QUESTIONS?

14. Legend
8.6
Objective 8.7 – Given a sectional chart, discuss the information found in the Legend.
Top half of the legend
Cover the various airport symbols and the airport data information.
Cover the radio aids to navigation and communication boxes.
Airport traffic service and airspace information

15. Legend Back of the legend
Class B, Class C, TSRA and selected approach control frequencies (shown)
Special Use Airspace (shown)
MOA information (shown)
Control Tower frequencies (not shown)

16. Sectional Airports Airspace Navaids MEFs
8.6
Objective 8.6 – Given a sectional chart, locate and discuss the following: physical features such as topographical details; towns and cities; highways and roads; towers (determine height in MSL and AGL; airways and radio aids to navigation; airports and airport data.
Objective 8.8 – Given a sectional chart, locate Maximum Elevation Figures and state their meaning.

17. Sectional Aeronautical Charts
1 to 500,000
Medium to slow speed aircraft
Types of Information: Legend, Aeronautical, Topographical
8.10.1
Objective 8.13 – Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual, grid a sectional.
Expired gridded charts may be used only for reference or training purposes (gridding). Label them “For Training Purposes Only”

18. Sectional Restricted Area Military Training Routes
Point out local airports, restricted area, and military training routes

19. BAK North
8.4
Objective 8.3 – Discuss considerations for operating near controlled airports, and identify them on a sectional.

20. BAK South
8.4.1 & 8.4.2
Objective 8.4 – Discuss the following SUA, and identify them on a sectional: prohibited and restricted areas; military operating areas and training routes.
Local airports, restricted area and military training routes.
Obstructions/towers: Top number is the MSL altitude where you will hit the obstruction, the bottom number is how far you’ll fall.

21. MOA
Discuss flight planning for and operating in a MOA. Emphasize that military pilots aren’t listening to you and aren’t looking for you, and they’re moving fast.

22. Position Determination
Sectional or Map
Work from larger to smaller
Work from a known location to present location
Watch the scale on maps
Remain suspicious if all points don’t seem to line up right
Use groups of 3 characteristics to verify position
8.8
Objective 8.9 – Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two points on the chart: determine the heading; determine the distance between the points (nautical and statute miles).
Pilotage is using primarily VISUAL REFERENCES or landmarks along with some computations of time, speed, heading, and wind.
Dead Reckoning is navigation using ONLY time, heading, wind and airspeed. No visual references are used.

23. Tracking & Recording Position
Maintain positional awareness from takeoff to landing
Finger on the map method using visual landmarks
Ask the pilot or observer to determine position using GPS and/or VOR/DME
Once you locate a downed aircraft or determines the location of a breech in the levy, you must be able to pinpoint the location on the sectional and report that position to others. Since the details on the sectional chart are often not detailed enough to be useful to ground units, you have to transfer that information to a map (e.g., road or topographical).
Knowing the aircraft's position at all times is essential if an in-flight emergency should occur. Equipment malfunctions, an electrical fire, or a medical emergency can necessitate landing at the nearest airport: if you don't know where you are, how can you find the nearest airfield?
8.9
Objective 8.11 – Given data from navaids, track the current position of an aircraft and determine the position of a ground feature (sectional and map).

24. Obstacles and Other DangersAt
TALL TOWERS
The alternating red and white sections do not indicate height!

25. Obstacles and Other DangersAt
GUY WIRES
Guy wires may extend outward over 1,000 ft.

26. Obstacles and Other DangersAt
POWER LINES

27. Obstacles and Other Dangers LOW-FLYING, HEAVY AIRCRAFTAt
LOW-FLYING, HEAVY AIRCRAFT

28. CAP Standard Grid System
Overlays standard sectional maps
Subdivides the map into distinct working areas
Each grid is 1/4° (15 minutes) of latitude by 1/4° of longitude and is assigned a number
Grids are further divided into sub-grids labeled A, B, C, and D
Each sectional has a standard for assigning grid numbers — for areas of overlap the grid number of the most westerly chart is used
Only a couple of charts in the US have overlaps. Where charts overlap, the grids on all charts will be assigned the number and identifier of the primary chart (the most westerly chart will be designated as the primary chart). Overlapping chart grids will use the identifier of the primary chart (e.g. MKC for Kansas City) and the grid number.

29. CAP Conventional Grid System
Each grid on the sectional is assigned a number
In this example, the grid depicted is on the St Louis Sectional
STL 159
Grids are subdivided into smaller sections
Letters are used to define sub-grids
STL 159A W W
36-15 N A B
8.10.1
Objective 8.12 – State the size of a full and a one-quarter standardized grid.
The first full 15-minute quadrangle in the northwest corner of the chart is numbered “One” and numbered in sequence from west to east. Continue in this manner until reaching the southeast corner of the gridded area which serves as the last full 15 minute quadrangle. N C D
36-00 N W
102 15’ W W

30. Cell Grid System
Can be used on any kind of chart that has lines of lat/long
1° blocks identified by the intersection of whole numbers of lat/long, such as 36-00N and W
Points are designated with the latitude first (36 /102) and they identify the area north and west of the intersection of these two lines
Grids can be subdivided into smaller sections
Letters are used to define sub-grids
Alternate system to CAP Grid System.

31. Marking Grid Charts
You can use a new sectional — normally not updated unless it gets worn out
Use a Hi-Lighter (not pink) to mark grid boundaries on the chart using a long ruler
Mark grid identification in black ink for easy visibility
You should always keep a current sectional with you even if you have a sectional which is marked with grids
You can make a master grid chart and then mark up your current navigation chart with selected grids as needed.
Red or pink marks on your charts will not be visible at night when the red light is the only light on. Use a green flashlight to see most colors.

32. QUESTIONS?

33. Electronic Aids to Navigation
Automatic direction finder (ADF)
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
8.5
Objective 8.5 – Discuss the uses and limitations of the following navaids: ADF, VOR, DME and GPS.
These systems help you determine and keep track of your position – situational awareness is everyone’s job.

34. ADF Automatic Direction Finding Oldest system Fair accuracy Low cost
Homing only
Aircraft
headed
North
Basically a homing station. Indicates direction of the station being received relative to the heading of the aircraft.
ADF is a receiver in the aircraft which picks up the NDB (non-directional beacon) signal located on the ground.
Needle always points
toward the station

35. Using ADF to determine position
Automatic Direction Finding
ADF
Oldest system
Fair accuracy
Low cost
Homing only
If you just follow the signal it will get you there (though not necessarily in a straight line)

36. VOR provides heading and course deviation indication
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Ranging
VOR
Very common
Most air routes defined by VORs
Good Accuracy
Radial
VOR provides heading and
course deviation indication
VOR is a ground transmitter that provides 360 radials aligned to magnetic north. Does not provide distance.
Victor airways are built around VOR’s.
Without GPS pilots will often fly from VOR to VOR.
When tracing the route of a missing aircraft, search airplane may initially fly the same route as the missing plane.

37. VOR

38. VOR

39. Using the VOR to determine position
Turn the OBS knob until the needle centers with a FROM flag
Read the bearing from the station directly at the top
Plot the bearing on the chart
Radials are always given as FROM a VOR (intercept the 270 degree radial).

40. Keeping Track of Position

41. DME Distance Measuring Equipment TACAN or VORTAC
Very Accurate when flying directly towards
Slant range
DME determines range to a station. Distance is read in nautical miles.
Only accurate when flying directly towards and within about 20 nm.
Due to slant range error, readout is not accurate at close range. Rule of thumb is that DME reading is significantly different from the ground range when it reads fewer miles than the altitude of the aircraft in thousands of feet. In other words, at 8,000 feet, DME ground range will be very different from the slant range below 8 miles.
DME can be co-located with a VOR. (VOR/DME -- VORTAC)
TACAN - is a combination of DME and azimuth (azimuth used by military).
VORTAC -VOR and TACAN that is co-located (civilians use the VOR for azimuth and the DME portion of the TACAN.
Ground Range

42. DME

43. LORAN Low Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Aided Navigation Accurate
Aircraft & Ships
Susceptible to precipitation; western coverage spotty
1/4 mile accuracy.
Time/distance calculation among one Master and at least 2 slave stations are used to determine position.
Low frequency wavelength gives long range reception
LORAN may not be used much longer because of GPS; plans are to keep in the foreseeable future.

44. GPS Global Positioning System 24 Satellites GPS receiver Very accurate
Polar orbits.
Built by the Department of Defense.
Uses at least 3 satellites at a time.

45. Know Your Chart Symbols

46. QUESTIONS?