1. Chapter 22 Age of nation states

2. The Crimean War  Grew out of a rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and Russia  A war ensued with major European Powers- France and Britain declared war on Russia who settled the matter in the Treaty of Paris in 1856  The Crimean War broke the Concert of Europe and marked a new era in European politics

3. Italian unification  Nationalists hoped for Italian unification, but Italians disagreed how to accomplish it  Romantic republican nationalism was led by Giuseppe Mazzini who found the Young Italy Society, to drive Austria from the peninsula  Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi led insurrections in the 1830s through 1850s  Between 1852-1860 Italy was transformed into a nation-state governed by a constitutional monarchy. Full unification remained elusive

4. German Unification  The construction of a unified Germany was one of the most important political developments in Europe between 1848-1914 because it altered the international balance of power  In 1862 William I of Prussia turning to Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) who moved against the liberal Parliament and sought support for unifying Germany through a war with Denmark  Bismarck supported the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein in their efforts to avoid getting incorporated into Denmark  Together Russia and Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864  Elevated Bismarck’s prestige and led to a conflict between two countries in 1865

5. German Unification continued  Bismarck then provoked war with Austria over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein  The seven weeks war led to the defeat of Austria in 1866 and established Prussia as the only major power among German states  In 1867 the north German confederation formed with Bismarck representing the King of Prussia as President  Germany had become a military monarchy crushing Prussian liberalism

6. German unification continued  The Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871) enabled Bismarck to bring southern German states into the confederation.  Bismarck orchestrated war by provoking France against Prussia  Southern German states joined Prussia against Napoleon III armies  The Germans beat French armies and captured Napoleon III  Besieged Paris and proclaimed it part of the German empire

7. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic  The provinces and Paris differed on how to handle a settlement with the Prussians  The National assembly was dominated by monarchists and led by Adolphe Thiers  The Treaty of Frankfurt that France would pay an indemnity and the Prussians would occupy France until it was paid  Alsace and part of Lorraine was granted to the Prussians

8. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic continued  Parisians who had suffered under the Prussian siege rebelled against the Treaty of Frankfurt  Elected a new municipal government on March 28, 1871 called Paris Commune that was created to administer Paris separately from the rest of Paris  On May 8, 1871 the National assembly bombared the city and broke through the defenses on May 21, 1871  Troops restored order in Paris killing 20,000 Parisians in the process and ending the Commune

9. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic continued  In 1875 the National Assembly adopted a new republican system  Chamber of deputies that elected by universal male sufferage  A senate chosen indirectly  President elected by the two legislative houses  1879 President Marshal MacMahon resigns and the republicans gained control of the national government  The Dreyfus Affair, a case involving the trumped case of a Jewish captain, was the major crisis

10. The Habsburg Empire  The Habsburg domains remained primarily absolutist after the Revolutions of 1848  1861 Francis Joseph issued the February Patent which set up a bicameral imperial parliament or Reichsrat an upper chamber appointed the emperor and lower chamber indirectly elected  The Magyars refused to recognize the system, but the February patent ruled the country for six years  In 1867 Francis Joseph transformed the Habsburg Empire into Austria Hungary toe satisfy the desires of Magyars to maintain their lands separately from Austria while sharing same monarch  The unrest of the many nationalities in Habsburg Empire caused instability throughout Europe

11. Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings  Alexander II restructured Russian society after Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War, ushering in some of the much needed reforms  Abolition of serfdom in 1861. Alexander II became known as the Tsar Liberator  he was never popular with his noble subjects who resented his control over policy  1870s Young Russians drew on the ideas of Alexander Herzen and formed the Populism movement  Sought social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants

12. Great Britain Toward Democracy  Reform Bill sponsored by Benjamin Disraeli, a house of Commons leader in 1867.  By the time the measure had passed the number of voters had almost doubled  William Gladstone ushered in many liberal reforms including the opening of more institutions to the public and people from other classes and religious denominations  The Education Act of 1870 made the government responsible for administering elementary schools.  Gladstone was also forced to confront the Irish question during his administration