1. 1 FORENSIC SCIENCE Toxicology and Drugs

2. Chapter 9 – Drugs “Having sniffed the dead man’s lips, I detected a slightly sour smell, and I came to the conclusion that he had poison forced upon him.” – Sherlock Holmes, in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s “A Study in Scarlet”

3. 3 TOXICOLOGY TYPES: Environmental--air, water, soil Consumer--foods, cosmetics, drugs Medical, clinical, forensic

4. 4 Forensic Toxicology u Postmortem--medical examiner or coroner u Criminal--motor vehicle accidents (MVA), assault, etc. u Workplace drug testing u Sports--human and animal

5. 5 Why do Toxicology? Toxicology can: Be a cause of death Contribute to death Cause impairment Explain behavior

6. 6 OUR STUDY u Drugs u Poisons Basically, toxicology involves the separation, detection, identification and measurement of the drug and/or poison.

7. 7 Testing u PDR’s--Physician’s Desk Reference u Field Tests--presumptive tests u Lab Tests--conclusive tests

8. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company8 Physician Desk Reference u PDR – a physician’s desk reference is used to identify manufactured pills, tablets and capsules. It is updated each year. This can sometimes be a quick and easier identifier of the legally made drugs that may be found at a scene. The reference book gives a picture of the drug, whether it is a prescription, over the counter, or a controlled substance; as well as, more detailed information about the drug.

9. 9 PDR’s

10. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company10 Drugs and Crime u Definition – a natural or synthetic substance designed to affect the subject psychologically or physiologically. u “Controlled substances” – drugs that are restricted by law u Controlled Substances Act – enacted in 1970 lists illegal drugs, their category and their penalty for possession, sale or use.

11. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company11 Controlled Substances Act u Schedule I – high potential for abuse; no currently acceptable medical use in the U.S.; a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision u Schedule II – high potential for abuse; a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions; abuse may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence u Schedule III – lower potential for abuse than the drugs in I or II; a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the U.S.; abuse may lead to moderate physical dependence or high psychological dependence u Schedule IV – low potential for abuse relative to drugs in III; a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the U.S.; abuse may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to drugs in III u Schedule V – low potential for abuse relative to drugs in IV; currently accepted medical use in treatment in the U.S.; abuse may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to drugs in IV

12. 12 Analysis of Drugs u Controlled Substances Act Schedule I--heroin, LSD Schedule II--morphine, methadone Schedule III--barbiturates, amphetamines Schedule IV--other stimulates and depressants Schedule V--codeine

13. 13 DRUG IDENTIFICATION Screening tests or presumptive tests u Color tests u Ultraviolet (UV) u Visible u Microcrystalline test-- a reagent is added that produces a crystalline precipitate which are unique for certain drugs. Confirmation tests u Chromatography u Spectrophotometry u Mass spectrometry

14. 14 Presumptive Color Tests u Marquis--turns purple in the presence of most opium derivatives and orange-brown with amphetamines u Dillie-Koppanyi--turns violet-blue in the presence of barbiturates

15. 15 Presumptive Color Tests u Duquenois-Levine--turns a purple color in the presence of marijuana u Van Urk--turns a blue-purple in the presence of LSD u Scott test--color test for cocaine

16. 16 Confirmation Tests Chromatography u Techniques for separating mixtures into their component compounds u Includes two phases--one mobile and one stationary that flow past one another u As the mixture separates it interacts with the two phases.

17. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company17 Human Components for Drug Analysis u Blood u Urine u Hair u Gastric Contents u Bile u Liver tissue u Brain tissue u Kidney tissue u Spleen tissue u Vitreous Humor of the Eye

18. 18 Types of Chromatography u Paper u Thin Layer u Gas u Pyrolysis Gas u High Pressure Liquid (HPLC)

19. 19 Paper Chromatography u Stationary phase-- paper u Mobile phase--a liquid solvent Capillary action moves the mobile phase through the stationary phase

20. 20 Thin Layer Chromatography u Stationary phase--a thin layer of coating on a sheet of plastic or glass (usually aluminum or silica) u Mobile phase--a liquid solvent from www.lbp.police.uk

21. 21 Retention Factor (R f ) u This is a number that represents how far a compound travels in a particular solvent u It is determined by measuring the distance the compound traveled and dividing it by the distance the solvent traveled.

22. 22 Retention Factor (R f ) If the R f value for an unknown compound is close to or the same as that for the known compound, the two compounds are most likely similar or identical (a match)

23. 23 Gas Chromatography u Stationary phase--a solid or very syrupy liquid lines a tube or column u Mobile phase--an inert gas like nitrogen or helium

24. 24 GC Analysis u Shows a peak that is proportional to the quantity of the substance present u Uses retention time instead of Rf for the quantitative analysis

25. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company25 Gas Chromatography Phases u Stationary – a solid or very syrupy liquid lines a tube or column u Mobile – an inert gas like nitrogen or helium Analysis u Shows a peak that is proportional to the quantity of the substance present u Uses retention time instead of Rf for the quantitative analysis

26. 26 Retention Time u Time between the sample being injected and when it exits the column reaching the detector. u Tm is the time taken for the mobile phase to pass through the column

27. 27 Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography u Used when a sample does not readily dissolve in a solvent u If heating this sample decomposes it into gaseous products, these products can be analyzed by CGC u A pyrogram is the visual representation of the results

28. 28 High Pressure Liquid Chromatography u Stationary phase--fine solid particles u Mobile phase--a liquid solvent A solvent is pumped through the column as a sample is injected into it. The sample, as it moves, is slowed to differing degrees, depending on its interaction with the stationary phase. Different components of the sample mixture are, therefore, separated.

29. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company29 Spectrophotometry Spectroscopy – the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter Spectrophotometer – An instrument used to measure and record the absorption spectrum of a chemical substance

30. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company30 Spectrophotometry Components A radiation source A frequency selector A sample holder A detector to convert electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal A recorder to produce a record of the signal Types Ultraviolet Visible Infrared

31. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company31 Infrared Spectometry u Material absorbs energy in the near-IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum u Compare the IR light beam before and after passing through a transparent sample u Result – an absorption spectrum u Gives a unique view of the substance – like a fingerprint

32. 32 Mass Spectrometry Gas chromatography has one major drawback--it does not give a specific identification. By teaming a gas chromatograph with a mass spectrometer, this is accomplished. The mixture is separated first in a gas chromatograph. The GC column is directly attached to the mass spectrometer where a beam of electrons is shot through the sample molecules.

33. 33 MS (cont.) The electrons cause the molecules to lose electrons and become positively charged. These are unstable and decompose into many smaller fragments. These fragments pass through an electric or magnetic field and are separated according to their masses. NO TWO SUBSTANCES PRODUCE THE SAME FRAGMENTATION PATTERN.

34. 34 Example of a GS/MS

35. 35 Human Analysis for Drugs u Blood u Urine u Vitreous u Bile u Liver tissue u Brain tissue u Kidney tissue u Spleen tissue

36. 36 “If all those buried in our cemeteries who were poisoned could raise their hands, we would probably be shocked by the numbers. --John Trestrail

37. 37 POISONERS in HISTORY u Olympias—a famous Greek poisoner u Locusta—personal poisoner of Emperor Nero u Lucretia Borgia—father was Pope Alexander VI u Madame Giulia Toffana—committed over 600 successful poisonings, including two Popes. u Hieronyma Spara—formed a society to teach women how to murder their husbands u Madame de Brinvilliers and Catherine Deshayes—French poisoners. AND many others through modern times.

38. Symptoms of Various Types of Poisoning Type of Poison Symptom/Evidence Caustic Poison (lye)Characteristic burns around the lips and mouth of the victim Carbon MonoxideRed or pink patches on the chest and thighs. Unusually brighter red lividity Sulfuric acidBlack vomit Hydrochloric acidGreenish-brown vomit Nitric acidYellow vomit PhosphorousCoffee brown vomit. Onion or garlic odor CyanideBurnt almond odor Arsenic, MercuryPronounced diarrhea Methyl (wood) orNausea and vomiting, Isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol unconsciousness, possibly blindness

39. 39 Points to Know about a Poison u Form u Common color u Characteristic odor u Solubility u Taste u Common sources u Lethal dose u Mechanism u Possible methods of administration u Time interval of onset of symptoms. u Symptoms resulting from an acute exposure u Symptoms resulting from chronic exposure u Disease states mimicked by poisoning u Notes relating to the victim u Specimens from victim u Analytical detection methods u Known toxic levels u Notes pertinent to analysis of poison u List of cases in which poison was used from “Criminal Poisoning” by John Trestrail

40. 40 Evidence u Class Presumptive or screening tests can be used to determine that it is a drug. u Individual Chromatography, especially in conjunction with mass spectrometry, will specifically identify a drug or poison and its components.

41. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company41 People of Historical Significance Arthur Jeffrey Dempster was born in Canada, but studied and received his PhD from the University of Chicago. He began teaching physics there in 1916. In 1918, Dempster developed the first modern mass spectrometer. His version was over 100 times more accurate than previous ones developed, and established the basic theory and design of mass spectrometers that is still used to this day.

42. © by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company42 People of Historical Significance Francis William Aston was a British physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in the invention of the mass spectrometer. He used a method of electromagnetic focusing to invent the mass spectrograph. This allowed him to identify no fewer than 212 of the 287 naturally occurring isotopes.