2. Cytology 244 First Term of year 1432-1433 Nuha AL-Abdulhadi lab 6

3. -Ultrastructure of the nucleus and nucleolus. -Nuclear membrane. -Nuclear pores. Heterochromatin and Euchromatic.. -ER network connection. -Different region of nucleolus.

4. A nucleus : is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.organelleeukaryotic cellsgenetic materialDNAproteins histoneschromosomesgenesnuclear genome

6. The function of the nucleus: is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are: 1-the nuclear envelope.(Nuclear membrane ). 2- nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a meshwork within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole. Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to most molecules.gene expressionnuclear envelopenucleoskeletonnuclear laminacytoskeleton

7. Nuclear membrane - Nuclear envelope (NE) (also known as the perinuclear envelope, nuclear membrane, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear envelope also serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus (DNA in particular) from the cytosol (cytoplasm). - Many nuclear pores are inserted in the nuclear envelope, which facilitate and regulate the exchange of materials (proteins such as transcription factors, and RNA) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. -Each of the two membranes is composed of a lipid bilayer. -The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum while the inner nuclear membrane is the primary residence of several inner nuclear membrane proteins. The outer and inner nuclear membrane are fused at the site of nuclear pore complexes. The structure of the membrane also consists of ribosomes.

8. Nuclear lamina: In animal cells, two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support: The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope, while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope. Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores. [6] The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported into the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. [12][13]intermediate filamentsnuclear lamina [6]lamin [12][13]

9. -Nuclear pores-Nuclear pores: are required to allow movement of molecules across the envelope. These pores cross both of the membranes, providing a channel that allows free movement of small molecules and ions. The movement of larger molecules such as proteins is carefully controlled, and requires active transport regulated by carrier proteins. Nuclear transport is crucial to cell function, as movement through the pores is required for both gene expression and chromosomal maintenance.ionsNuclear transport

11. Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is sometimes called a suborganelle. It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). The main roles of the nucleolus : 1- to synthesize rRNA 2-assemble ribosomes. The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity.nucleolustandem ribosomal RNAnucleolar organizer regions

13. Euchromatin: - is a lightly packed form of chromatin (DNA, RNA and protein) that is rich in gene concentration, and is often (but not always) under active transcription. Unlike heterochromatin, it is found in both cells with nuclei (eukaryotes) and cells without nuclei (prokaryotes -Euchromatin comprises the most active portion of the genome within the cell nucleus.chromatingenetranscriptionheterochromatineukaryotesprokaryotes

14. The two types of chromatins : are euchromatin and heterochromatin.They are different in that heterochromatin is coiled while euchromatin is not coiled.It is this coiling that makes heterochromatin inactive and therefore less in the nucleus when the nucleus is actively involved in protein synthesis.On the other hand,euchromatin is active because its DNA is exposed

15. Appearance: In general, euchromatin appears as light-colored bands when stained,in contrast to heterochromatin, which stains darkly.heterochromatin

18. Structure: The structure of euchromatin is an unfolded set of beads along a string, wherein those beads represent nucleosomes. Nucleosomes consist of eight proteins known as histones, with approximately 147 base pairs of DNA wound around them.nucleosomeshistonesbase pairsDNA

19. Function of Euchromatin : Euchromatin participates in the active transcription of DNA to mRNA products. The unfolded structure allows gene regulatory proteins and RNA polymerase complexes to bind to the DNA sequence, which can then initiate the transcription process.mRNARNA polymerase

20. - ER network connection: the o uter nuclear membrane is continuous with membrane of RER and is similarly studed with ribosomes.the space betwen the membranes is called perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen.

30. NUHA