1. Ways of classifying varieties of English Style, register, genre, …

2. 2 Varieties of English Already seen accent, dialect Talked about geographic and sociological aspects of language variety Want to focus today on aspects of “style” In particular “register”

3. 3 Register Subset of language as defined by purpose and setting Term first used by Reid (1956), but popularised by Halliday (et al.) (1964) to distinguish –Variety due to user (accent, dialect) –Variety due to use Halliday (1964) defines register in terms of field, tenor and mode.

4. 4 Field, tenor and mode All of these can determine or be defined, to greater or lesser extent, in terms of –Vocabulary –Syntax –Phonology –Morphology –Pragmatics –Paralinguistic features –(Non-linguistic correlates)

5. 5 Field Relates to the subject matter Idea that what you are talking about determines vocabulary in particular –Specialised meanings of words, especially if a technical field (maybe narrower or broader than the word’s meaning in another field) –Preferred interpretations of ambiguous words –Words that are not used outside the field

6. 6 Field Can also determine syntax –certain grammatical constructions may be favoured, or disfavoured –Some constructions may deviate from the “norm” Less likely to have an impact on other levels Related topics: –Sublanguage, LSP –Terminology

7. 7 Tenor Relates to the participants and their relationship –Speaker/writer –Intended audience In spoken language –Speaker, hearer(s) In written language –Author, intended readership

8. 8 Tenor relates to … Formality –Appropriateness of more or less formal phonology, lexis, syntax Intimacy –Use of private, shared meanings –Including intonation, syntax, pragmatic and paralinguistic elements Impression –Speaker’s/writer’s intention to portray themselves in a certain way: speaker can control what they say/write –Less control over how audience interpret this Non-linguistic elements particularly relate to tenor –Dress code, stance, gestures, …

9. 9 Tenor determines … Vocabulary –Choice of synonyms according to level of formality –Private slang, “local” clichés, colloquialisms Syntax / orthography –Use of contractions, ellipses –Certain constructions may be more or less formal Phonology –Accent [is this changing?] Pragmatics –Precision more or less tolerated –Use of pronouns and deictic reference Paralinguistic features –Intonation –Pitch and volume

10. 10 Formality scale Quirk et al. (1965) suggest a scale of “Attitudes”: –Very formal, Frozen, Rigid –FORMAL –Neutral –INFORMAL –Very informal, Casual, Familiar

11. 11 Mode Channel of communication, broadly written vs spoken, but … Written to be read aloud or not Written as if it were spoken –Transcripts of genuine dialogues –Dialogue in plays Spoken from written –Speeches, announcements Spoken spontaneously

12. 12 Mode relates to … Lexis and grammar –There are things that you say but you wouldn’t write down and vice versa Phonology –Euphony, alliteration are aspects of mode –Written representation of dialect

13. 13 Some other terms Several concepts found which cut across Halliday’s definition of register: –Text type –Genre –Style

14. 14 Text type Modes –Detailed report –Brief report –Summary –Abstract tenor –Lay reader –Child –Humorous or not –Revealing author’s opinion or neutral Mainly modes, but also incorporating some aspects of tenor Distinctions such as

15. 15 Genre Term used in many other fields (eg literary, musical, painting) In stylistics, term used to capture all of mode, tenor and field, so possibly a synonym of register Possible distinction????? Register = the set of linguistic features Genre = the set of determinants

16. 16 Register is a fuzzy concept No discrete boundaries in registers We cannot easily define and name specific registers Rather “register” refers to a set of tendencies determining language at all levels The tendencies being related principally to field, mode and tenor

17. 17 Joos (1961) styles Frozen: Printed unchanging language such as bible quotations; often contains archaisms. Formal: One-way participation, no interruption. Technical vocabulary; "Fussy semantics" or exact definitions are important. Includes introductions between strangers. Consultative: Two-way participation. Background information is provided — prior knowledge is not assumed. "Backchannel behaviour" such as "uh huh", "I see", etc. is common. Interruptions allowed. Casual: In-group friends and acquaintances. No background information provided. Ellipsis and slang common. Interruptions common. Intimate: Non-public. Intonation more important than wording or grammar. Private vocabulary.

18. 18 Style and stylistics Even if “style” is a somewhat nebulous concept, there is some interest in trying to characterise style Next time: stylometrics –how do you measure style? –Can you characterise registers in terms of numerical measurements? (Biber)