1. The “Pillars of Modernity” Nation-states as political entities Science-based technology as source of modern lifestyle Rise of bureaucratic organisations Profit maximisation as major motivation Secularisation/religion’s loss of dominance

2. Manifestations - Rise of West Why do Muslims not rule the world? What went wrong? Islam/Muslims not quick enough to adapt to modern world? Lack of faith and divine displeasure? Why are we seeing success in political terms anyway?

3. Manifestations - Socialism, Nationalism, Zionism Search for alternatives: Socialism, though some see Islam as embodying socialist principles Nationalism, which tends to be secularising, though rise of Zionism has strengthened Islamic ID. Zionism viewed as extension of western colonialism

4. Manifestations - Oil Those who do not have it resent those who do Western countries accused of hypocrisy when they target regimes that do not have or do not trade oil with West and do not target those that do Image of US as Crusaders wanting to control oil, morally corrupt and hostile to Islam

5. Responses How to apply Islam to the modern, secular world? Applying historically-stable origin to rapidly changing world. Pressure for change in law in particular Spectrum of responses, from imposition of Islamic regimes to view of faith as personal matter

6. Traditionalists Look to rigid adherence to Islamic past for guidance, but tradition has changed over time Question of how to legitimise change esp. in face of long-established life patterns “Neo-Traditionalists” advocating cautious change

7. Islamists a.k.a “Literalists” or “Fundamentalists” e.g. Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) Advocating return to Qur’an and hadith as sources of wisdom, rejecting traditional interpretations. See this as leading to revival of Islam Often anti-intellectualist and anti-philosophy Extremist Islamists tend to dominate media. Advocating armed struggle, with polarised worldviews

8. Modernists See Islam as needing to adapt to modern world, often looking to moral precepts behind legal injunctions Embrace useful modern developments, but leave faith to individual Law needs to be adapted to circumstances through thoughtful interpretation of Qur’an and hadith

9. e.g. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897) Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905) Muhammad Iqbal (d. 1938)

10. Modernists Islam can be basis of political as well as personal life, but needs to be flexible Strong advocates of use of reason in interpretation of texts. Interpretations may be radical in light of modern ideas of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice (seen as values inherent in Islam anyway)

11. Case Study - Polygamy Traditionalists accept polygamy, because it has always been practiced Islamists look to Qur’an and say that it was advocating monogamy but allowed for older practices that are no longer relevant Modernists say that since the sexes are equal, and monogamy aims for social welfare while polygamy is potentially problematic, should stick with monogamy. View Qur’an as supporting position