1. TOWARDS A ‘PEACE-FUL’ DEMOCRACY The de Borda Institute www.deborda.org

2. DECISION-MAKING Questions POLITICSclosed, majority votes win-or-lose MEDIATION open, multi-optional win-win

3. CLOSED QUESTIONS SEMI-OPEN QUESTIONS OPEN QUESTIONS ↑ All Prefs DECISION-MAKING Borda BC / MBC C AV = alternative vote BC = Borda Count IRV = instant run-off MBC = modified Borda count STV = single transferable vote Condorcet (Copeland) O Some Approval voting U prefsSerial voting Sweden* AV = IRV = STV N 1 st prefs only Weighted majority SA Consociational NI, Belgium 2-round voting Norway** T Simple majority UK Twin Majority Switzerland Plurality New Zealand * a series of majority votes ** a plurality and then a majority vote 1 of 2 options 1 of all options 1 or some of all options 1or some or all of all options 1 st preference onlyPreferential BINARYMULTI-OPTIONAL VOTERS’ CHOICE → →

4. ‘DEMOCRATIC’ DICTATORS

5. THE QUESTION IS THE ANSWER

6. IRAQ Sanctions Inspections Diplomacy Threats

7. RESOLUTION 1441 Article 13. The Security Council “recalls…that the Council has repeatedly warned Iraq that it will face serious consequences as a result of its continued violations of its obligations.”

8. THE BALLOT PAPER OPTIONPreference AUK/US ………………… BFrance/Germany ………………….. CIreland ……………. DSyria ……………… E …………………….

9. VOTING AND VIOLENCE YEARPLACEEVENTRESULT 1902RUSSIAMAJORITY VOTE (bolshevik = member of majority)BOLSHEVISM (majoritarianism) 1933GERMANYMAJORITY VOTE (Hitler’s Enabling Act)NAZIS ‘59-‘61CHINACCP MAJORITY DECISIONSFAMINE 1973N. IRELANDBORDER POLL (Protestants vote ‘yes’; Catholics boycott) MORE ‘TROUBLES’ 1990YUGOSLAVIAELECTIONS (sectarian headcounts) 1991CROATIA1 st REFERENDUM (Orthodox ‘yes’ Catholics abstain) 2 nd ” (Catholics ‘yes’, Orthodox abstain) WAR 1992BOSNIAREFERENDUM (Muslims + Catholics ‘yes’; Orthodox build barricades) WAR 1994RWANDAThreat of majority rule. “Rubanda Nyamwinshi” (= “we are the majority”) GENOCIDE 1999E. TIMORREFERENDUM (Catholics ‘yes’)VIOLENCE 2002UN - IRAQMAJORITY VOTE (Resolution 1441)WAR 2006S. OSSETIAREFERENDUM (Ossetians ‘yes’; Georgians abstain)WAR 2008KENYAELECTIONSVIOLENCE 2010CÔTE D'IVOIREELECTIONSVIOLENCE ?KASHMIRReferendum (as per1947 UN resolution) … ???

10. CLOSED QUESTIONS SEMI-OPEN QUESTIONS OPEN QUESTIONS ↑ All Prefs DECISION-MAKING Borda BC / MBC C AV = alternative vote BC = Borda Count IRV = instant run-off MBC = modified Borda count STV = single transferable vote Condorcet (Copeland) O Some Approval voting U prefsSerial voting Sweden* AV = IRV = STV N 1 st prefs only Weighted majority SA Consociational NI, Belgium 2-round voting Norway** T Simple majority UK Twin Majority Switzerland Plurality New Zealand * a series of majority votes ** a first- round plurality and then a majority vote 1 of 2 options 1 of all options 1 or some of all options 1or some or all of all options 1 st preference onlyPreferential BINARYMULTI-OPTIONAL VOTERS’ CHOICE → →

11. CLOSEDSEMI-CLOSED OPEN → THRESHOLD HIGHLOWHIGHLOWHIGHLOWHIGHLOW ↑COUNT ↑COUNT All prefs E L E C T O R A L S Y S T E M S QBS + top-up AMS = additional member system AV = (STV) = alternative vote FPP = first-past-the-post MBC = modified Borda count MMP = multi-member proportional QBS BC/MBC Condorcet lots some prefs few QBS =quota Borda system S(N)TV = single (non-) transferable vote PR-List Swiss PR-STV Ireland N Ireland Approval Voting AV Australia PR-List Belgium 2-round France Bosnia ’90 Mixed FPP + PR Croatia ’92-’95 MMP – Germany, NZ 1 st prefs FPP UK Kenya PR-list closed Israel, Iraq Bosnia ’96 Kosovo* AMS FPP Lebanon SNTV Afghani PR-list Holland Bosnia ’00 * with set- aside. 1 party only1 candidate of 1 party 1 or some candidates of 1 or some parties 1, some or all candidates of any or all parties V O T E R S ' C H O I C E →