1. Federal Political Systems
Nov. 10

2. Overview Definitions and examples of federal political systems
History of federalism and waves of federalism
Details of federal political systems

3. Definitions
Unitary State: A state in which sovereignty is concentrated at the level of a single centralized government. Unitary states may be centralized, decentralized or regionalized.
The classic example is France.
Unitary states may have relatively strong regional governments, but that should not be confused with federalism.

4. Federal Political Systems
Federal political systems “refers to a broad category of political systems in which, by contrast to the single central source of authority in unitary systems, there are two (or more) levels of government thus combining elements of shared-rule through common institutions and regional self-rule for the governments of the constituent units” (Watts, 1999).

5. Federal Political Systems
This term, federal political system, “encompasses a whole spectrum of more specific non-unitary forms” including federations, and confederacies.
See Table 11.2, pages

6. Definitions
Federal State: A state where sovereignty is shared across several levels of government in which one level may not intervene in defined areas of competence of the other.
Key points:
neither level is subordinate to the other, each has some genuine autonomy, neither level can unilaterally abolish the other.

7. Definitions
Confederation: “These occur where several pre-existing polities join together to form a common government for certain limited purposes (for foreign affairs, defence or economic purposes), but the common government is dependent upon the constituent governments, being composed of delegates from the constituent governments, and therefore having only an indirect electoral and fiscal base” (Watts, 1999).

8. Spectrum of unitary and federal states

9. Federations Six of the ten most populous countries are federations.
Eight of the ten largest countries by area are federations.
All democracies with populations much larger than 100 million people are federations.
28 countries, home to 40% of the world’s population, may be considered federations.
Source: Anderson, George Federalism: An Introduction. Don Mills: Oxford UP.

10. Existing [and tenuously Emerging] Federations
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
[Bosnia-Herzegovina]
Brazil
Canada
Comoros
[Democratic Republic of Congo]
[Ethiopia]
Germany
India
[Iraq]
Malaysia
Mexico
Micronesia
Nigeria
Pakistan
Palau
Russia
St. Kitts and Nevis
South Africa
Spain
[Sudan]
Switzerland
United Arab Emirates
USA
Venezuela
Source: (Anderson, 2008)

11. Confederations: Examples
Historic
Switzerland (for most of the period )
USA ( )
Current
Benelux
Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
Commonwealth of Independent States
European Union

12. Devolution
In 1999, the United Kingdom devolved powers to the Scottish Parliament, and to a lesser extent, to Wales and Northern Ireland.
This has meant the UK has evolved toward a federal political system (though it should not be considered a federation).

13. History of Federalism Origins of federations
Federations have emerged through the combination (or coming together) of previously separate entities.
Federations have emerged through a process of devolution of powers.
In some cases, both developments have occurred.

14. History of Federalism Historical Precursors and Influences
Native Confederacies of North America
Swiss Confederation
United Provinces of the Netherlands
Modern Federations
USA 1780s
Switzerland 1848
Canada 1867
North German Federation 1867, expanded in 1871 to include south German states.
Australia 1901
19th – early 20th century: Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela

15. Historic waves of federalism
First wave, from late 18th to early 20th century, with the creation of new countries through the coming together of polities.
Second, emergence of post-colonial federations, with both successes and failures.
Third, new federations emerging from collapse of Soviet Union and Eastern bloc, with successes and failures. During the same time period, some unitary states moved toward federalism.
Fourth, most tenuous has been the use of federalism in post-conflict situations. Along with Iraq, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and Sudan, federal proposals have been suggested for Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Nepal.
An additional important development is the increasing federalization of the European Union, which is somewhere between a confederation and a federation.

16. Details of Federal Political Systems
constituent units
Federations and diversity
Institutional features of federalism

17. Constituent Units within Federations
The terminology applied to constituent units varies;
states (Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, USA)
provinces (Argentina, Canada, Pakistan, South Africa),
Länder (Germany and Austria),
cantons (Switzerland),
regions and communities (Belgium)
autonomous communities (Spain).
Russia has regions, republics, autonomous areas, territories, and cities of federal significance.

18. Constituent Units within Federations
Existing federations have as few as 2 units or more than 80.
Russia has 86 units.
USA has 50 states.
Nigeria has 36 states.
India has 28 states.
Belgium has 3 regions and 3 cultural communities.
St. Kitts and Nevis consists of 2 islands.
Bosnia-Herzegovina has 2 entities.
Comoros consists of 3 islands.

19. Federations and Diversity
Some federations have a largely homogenous culture and common language. They may have regional differences, but federalism is not structured around major ethnic, linguistic or religious cleavages.
Examples: Argentina, Austria, Australia, Brazil, Germany, Mexico, USA

20. Federations and Diversity
Some federations are comprised of highly distinct cultural, religious, linguistic or national communities.
Some federations have a linguistic, ethnic or cultural majority but with one large minority (Belgium, Canada) or several smaller minorities (Spain, Russia).
Some federations have a wider range of languages, religions, and nationalities (Ethiopia, India, Nigeria).
In some cases ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages cut across one another (Switzerland) which can help reduce social polarization.

21. Federations that have Separated
Yugoslavia
Czechoslovakia ( ):
split into Czech Republic and Slovakia
Pakistan ( ):
split into Pakistan (which remains a federation) and Bangladesh

22. Belgium
Belgium was founded in 1830 as a unitary state, but a series of constitutional changes from 1970 to 1990s facilitated a process of devolution. Today Belgium is a federation divided between two major language and cultural groups.
“The Flemish speak Dutch in the province of Flanders and they are the majority, making up somewhere between 56 and 58 per cent of the country's population.
The Walloons speak French and live in the south next to France [in Wallonia].
To complicate matters, Brussels, the capital, is largely French-speaking but it lies in Flanders.”

23. Institutional Features of Federalism
A formal division of powers between levels of government.
A written constitution that may not be unilaterally amended. Instead it requires consent of a significant proportion of constituent units to be amended.
Intra-state federalism: a federal legislative body (bicameralism)
Inter-state federalism: mechanisms of intergovernmental cooperation or coordination
An umpire (usually the courts) to rule on disputes between governments

24. Division of Powers
The division of powers can be fairly distinct (USA) or involve many shared powers (Germany).
Federations can be centralized or decentralized.
They may certainly evolve over time, the USA and Australia were intended to be decentralized federations, but became more centralized. The opposite occurred in Canada.

25. Intra-State Federalism
Bicameralism: Most federations have two legislative bodies within the central government.
Usually the upper house in a federation is designed to accommodate the constituent units.

26. Intra-State Federalism
Upper houses in federations:
In some cases, all constituent units receive equal representation. Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Nigeria, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, USA
In other cases, the number of representatives per constituent unit varies. Austria, Belgium, Canada, Ethiopia, Germany, India

27. Intra-State Federalism
Upper houses in federations:
In some cases, representatives are directly elected by the public from constituent units, including the American (since 1913) and Australian Senates.
A variety of other options exist, however. Representatives in the upper house may be delegated or selected by state or provincial legislatures (Germany, Austria, India, 38% of the Malaysian Senate). They may even be appointed by the federal government (Canada, 63% of Malaysian Senate). Belgium and Spain also have Senators selected through a combination of methods.

28. Federalism Federalism is used to govern large territories.
Federalism is used to accommodate regionalized differences. This accommodation may be successful or riddled with tensions.
Where it exists and functions, federalism tends to become a crucial defining aspect of the political system. It shapes political debate and it adds another degree of complexity to governance.