1. Simple Sentence PRACTICE CLASS #8 (#9) 2012-04-24/25

2. NO MORE

3. THE PENULTIMATE TOPIC BEFORE THE FINAL EXAM SIMPLE SENTENCE

4. LET’S PRACTICE WHAT WE HAVEN’T LEARNED… SIMPLE SENTENCE - EXERCISES

5. BASIC INFORMATION SENTENCE TYPES

6. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION = based on the NUMBER AND TYPE of CLAUSES in a sentence: SENTENCE SIMPLECOMPLEXCOMPOUND SIMPLE SENTENCE – consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE. [The students] [didn’t know] [the answer to that question] = SVO COMPLEX SENTENCE – consists of a MAIN/SUPERORDINATE CLAUSE and AT LEAST one DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. [The students] [know] [that the project deadline is difficult to meet] = SVO (O realized as clause) SIMPLE SENTENCE – consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE. [The students] [didn’t know] [the answer to that question] = SVO COMPUND SENTENCE – consists of a at least TWO MAIN CLAUSES. [She] [took] [the test] [in June] and [she] [passed] [it] [with flying colors]. S V O (A) Conj. S V O (A)

7. VERB CLASSES One of the properties of verbs is VALENCY. VALENCY is the number of obligatory elements that a particular verb takes. On the basis of VALENCY verbs can be divided into five types.

8. VERB CLASSES VERBS INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE INTRANSITIVETRANSITIVE monotransitive ditransitive complex transitive INTENSIVE VERBS = also known as COPULAR or LINKING VERBS = verbs which are always followed by Cs or an obligatory A(dverbial): Mary seems happy. => “happy” is a subject complement = SVCs John is in his room. He lives in Paris. => “in his room” and “in Paris” are obligatory adverbials = SVA INTENSIVE VERBS = also known as COPULAR or LINKING VERBS = verbs which are always followed by Cs or an obligatory A(dverbial): Mary seems happy. => “happy” is a subject complement = SVCs John is in his room. He lives in Paris. => “in his room” and “in Paris” are obligatory adverbials = SVA INTRANSITIVE VERBS – require no obligatory complement, e.g. disappear, run, sleep, vanish, etc. E.g. The sun is shining. That piece of evidence disappeared. The baby is sleeping. = SV TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require at least one obligatory element, depending on the number and type of obligatory elements that they take, they can be divided into three subgroups. MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT I wrote two letters. I own a small boat. She broke the statue. = SVO MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT I wrote two letters. I own a small boat. She broke the statue. = SVO DITRANSITIVE VERBS – they require both the DIRECT OBJECT and the INDIRECT OBJECT: I gave her two letters. I showed the lady her new car. She sent me the statue. = SVOiOd DITRANSITIVE VERBS – they require both the DIRECT OBJECT and the INDIRECT OBJECT: I gave her two letters. I showed the lady her new car. She sent me the statue. = SVOiOd COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT and either the OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL or the OBJECT COMPLEMENT: I put the book on the desk. = SVOA I elected him chairman. = SVOCo COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT and either the OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL or the OBJECT COMPLEMENT: I put the book on the desk. = SVOA I elected him chairman. = SVOCo Sometimes one verb can belong to more than one class. If one verb belongs to more than one class we talk of MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIP. e.g. MAKE can be DITRANSITIVE, MONOTRANSITIVE and COMPLEX TRANSITIVE She made her children a chocolate cake. = DITRANSITIVE She made a chocolate cake. = MONOTRANSITIVE She made them extremely happy. = COMPLEX TRANSITIVE Verbs which can belong to more than one class, can sometimes cause AMBIGUITY: I called her a doctor. => two possible interpretations: DITRANSITIVE: She is sick. I called a doctor to help her. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE: She is a doctor. I addressed her as a doctor. Sometimes one verb can belong to more than one class. If one verb belongs to more than one class we talk of MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIP. e.g. MAKE can be DITRANSITIVE, MONOTRANSITIVE and COMPLEX TRANSITIVE She made her children a chocolate cake. = DITRANSITIVE She made a chocolate cake. = MONOTRANSITIVE She made them extremely happy. = COMPLEX TRANSITIVE Verbs which can belong to more than one class, can sometimes cause AMBIGUITY: I called her a doctor. => two possible interpretations: DITRANSITIVE: She is sick. I called a doctor to help her. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE: She is a doctor. I addressed her as a doctor.

9. ON THE BASIS OF VERB CLASSES CLAUSE TYPES

10. THE SINGLE VERB ELEMENT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ALWAYS A FINITE VP. SO, THESE ARE THE 7 TYPES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN ENGLISH

11. CLAUSE TYPES Naturally, OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL may be added to sentences of any type: (Luckily) the sun is (already) shining. I (definitely) must send her a birthday card (tomorrow).  The S, V, O and C are OBLIGATORY sentence elements, whereas the A can be either OBLIGATORY or OPTIONAL. The A is obligatory in the SVA and SVOA clause types: John often goes to the cinema. S(A)VA She kept the children in bed during the storm. SVOA(A)

12. PAGE 142 – exercise 1 (a-f) S V A S V O Co S V Oi Od S V O or S V O (A) S V Cs

13. PAGE 142 – exercise 1 (g-k) S V Cs S V (A) Oi Od S V Cs S V Cs or S V Cs (A) S V Cs

14. PAGE 142 – exercise 1 (l-o) S V O or S V O (A) S V Cs S V Cs or S V Cs (A)

15. CLAUSE TYPES: important note Sometimes, A VERB MAY BELONG TO MORE THAN ONE CLASS, which is called MULTIPLE-CLASS MEMBERSHIP: She made [her children] [a chocolate cake]. SVOO She made [a chocolate cake]. SVO She made [them] [extremely happy]. SVOCo ANOTHER NOTE: If deleting an adverbial changes the meaning of the verb completely and/or the verb class, the adverbial is considered to be obligatory: Frankenstein lives. Vs. Frankenstein lives [in London].

16. PAGE 142 – exercise 2 (a - b) I HOPE THEY HAVE SAVED A TABLE BY THE WINDOW FOR US. MAY I ASK A FAVOUR FROM YOU?

17. PAGE 142 – exercise 2 (a - b) CAN I PLAY A GAME OF CHESS WITH YOU? HER GREAT-AUNT LEFT A FORTUNE TO HER. WE WISH A VERY HAPPY NEW YEAR TO ALL OUR FRIENDS.

18. PAGE 142 – exercise 3 (a - d) OBLIGATORY (complex transitive verb, V + Co) OBLIGATORY (intensive verb, V + Cs) OBLIGATORY (monotransitive verb, V + Od) CAN BE DELETED, BUT NOT OPTIONAL, BECAUSE THE CLASS CHANGES (“explain” can be both transitive and intransitive)

19. PAGE 142 – exercise 3 (e - i) CAN BE DELETED, BUT NOT OPTIONAL, BECAUSE THE CLASS CHANGES (“tell” can be both monotransitive and ditransitive) OBLIGATORY (intensive verb, V + Cs) CAN BE DELETED, BUT NOT OPTIONAL, BECAUSE THE CLASS CHANGES (“fly” can be both transitive and intransitive) OPTIONAL

20. PAGE 143 – exercise 4 (a - e) NO OPTIONAL ELEMENTS EITHER THE FIRST OR THE SECOND, BUT ONE HAS TO STAY AMBIGUOUS, EITHER “FOR EVERY MEMBER OF THE FAMILY” IS OPTIONAL, OR “A PRESENT FOR EVERY MEMBER OF THE FAMILY” IS ONE BIG OBJECT

21. PAGE 143 – exercise 4 (f - j) “FOR YEARS” IS OBLIGATORY BECAUSE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT EITHER THE FIRST OR THE SECOND, BUT ONE HAS TO STAY

22. PAGE 143 – exercise 5 (a - e) V Cs = INTENSIVE V Oi Od = DITRANSITIVE V O Co = COMPLEX TRANSITIVE V O (A) = MONOTRANSITIVE V A (A) = INTENSIVE

23. PAGE 143 – exercise 6 1)S + V (DITRANSITIVE) + Oi + Od 2) S + V (COMPLEX TRANSITIVE) + Od + Co 1)S + V (MONOTRANSITIVE) + Od 2) S + V (INTENSIVE) + Cs

24. BASIC INFORMATION NEGATION

25. GENERAL TYPES OF NEGATION CLAUSE NEGATION – the whole clause is syntactically treated as negative: – She’s not an attractive woman in any respect(, is she?) LOCAL NEGATION – one constituent (but not necessarily a clause element) is negated: – She’s a not unattractive woman in some ways. (NOT: in any respect) PREDICATION NEGATION – very rare, applies only after certain auxiliaries (often depends on pronunciation): – They may not go swimming. [=They are allowed not to go swimming] NEGATION IS REALIZED THROUGH USE OF NEGATIVE ITEMS.

26. NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS The clause can be negated: – EITHER BY NEGATING THE VERB, – OR BY NEGATING OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS. Depending on what sentence element is being negated, it is necessary to use different negative items: – VERB NEGATION: the negative particle NOT is always used: He does not dring. She is not a model wife. – NEGATION OF OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS can be achieved using DIFFERENT NEGATIVE ITEMS: Words negative in form and meaning: no, none, never, not Word negative in meaning only (not negative in form): rarely, seldom, scarcely, barely, little, few VERBS, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSTIONS with IMPLIED NEGATIVE MEANING: refuse, deny, fail; reluctant, unaware; without, against; unless

27. NEGATION: SCOPE OF NEGATION The SCOPE OF NEGATION is the stretch of language OVER WHICH THE NEGATIVE MEANING OPERATES AND WHERE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS MUST BE USED. The SCOPE OF NEGATION EXTENDS FROM THE NEGATIVE ITEM TO: – THE END OF THE CLAUSE (NOT NECESSARILY THE END OF THE SENTENCE), – THE END OF THE NEGATED PHRASE (IF ONLY A SINGLE PHRASE IS NEGATED), OR – THE BEGINNING OF THE FINAL ADJUNCT. WHY IS THIS SUCH A BIG DEAL? The POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE ITEM may drastically INFLUENCE THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE SENTENCE:

28. SCOPE OF NEGATION She definitely didn’t speak to him. = It is definite that she didn’t speak to him. She didn’t definitely speak to him. = It is not definite that she spoke to him.

29. PAGE 145 – exercise 9 (a-d) THERE AREN’T ANY STUDENTS IN THE CLASSROOM YET. I WOULDN’T LIKE TO GO ANYWHERE FAR AWAY. WE CANNOT BE FRIENDS ANY MORE/ANY LONGER. HE HAS NEVER/RARELY GIVEN ME ANY USEFUL ADVICE.

30. PAGE 145 – exercise 9 (e-h) YOU CAN’T PARK EITHER ON THE LEFT OF RIGHT HERE. THE WEATHER DOESN’T SEEM ANY BETTER. SUSAN WILL NEVER MANAGE TO DO ANYTHING USEFUL. THERE WAS NO CHANCE ANYBODY WOULD COME.

31. PAGE 145 – exercise 9 (i-l) BILL WAS UNENTHUSIASTIC TO READ ANY OF THE BOOKS. NO PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED LIKE THAT. LITTLE OF THE FOOD WAS BAD. THEY WON’T GO SHOPPING.

32. PAGE 146 – exercise 10 (REALLY,) I (REALLY) DON’T (REALLY) UNDERSTAND. THAT (SIMPLY) IS (SIMPLY) NOT ACCEPTABLE. I (DEFINITELY) DON’T (DEFINITELY) KNOW (DEFINITELY) WHAT …. (EVEN) HE (EVEN) DOESN’T (EVEN) TRY (EVEN).

33. BASIC INFORMATION SENTENCE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTION

34. Sentence types and discourse functions

35. PAGE 146 – exercise 11 (a-d) WHAT IS HER NAME? WHERE DOES SHE COME FROM? DID SOMEONE CALL HER LAST NIGHT? CAN’T YOU GIVE US ANY HELP?

36. PAGE 146 – exercise 11 (e-h) YOU’VE GOT YOUR CAMERA WITH YOU? SHALL WE TRAVEL BY BUS OR TRAIN? HASN’T SHE GROWN! IS THAT A REASON FOR DESPAIR?

37. THE END Thank you for your time!