1. Cognitive Linguistics Croft&Cruse 4: Categories,concepts, and meanings, pt. 1

2. 4.1 Introduction Functions of conceptual categories: –Facilitate learning over non-identical events –Planning requires generalization across individuals –Communication cannot contain all detail –Economy of knowledge storage and retrieval

3. 4.1 Introduction Ways to look at categories: –As collections of entities, with central prototypes and peripheral members –How the members of one category differ from those of another category –Level of categorization

4. 4.2 The classical model of category structure Classical categories –are defined by necessary and sufficient features –have clear, rigid boundaries –have no internal structure

5. 4.2 The classical model of category structure Q: What are the problems with classical categories?

6. 4.2 The classical model of category structure Q: What are the problems with classical categories? A: –many everyday concepts cannot be defined in terms of necessary and sufficient features –category membership is often scalar, not absolute –the boundaries of categories are often “fuzzy”

7. 4.3 The prototype model of category structure There is an alternative to the classical model that avoids its drawbacks….

8. 4.3.1 Graded centrality It is easy for people to rate the GOE (goodness-of-example) of certain items in relation to a category, and this correlates with frequency, order of mention/learning, family resemblance, verification speed, and priming top-scorer for VEGETABLElow-scorer for VEGETABLE

9. 4.3.2 The representation of conceptual categories There are two ways to look at categories: –As a list of properties/features, which are not necessary or sufficient, but which characterize the prototype, which is an idealization of the category –As an organization in terms of similarity to an idealized member [These are very similar approaches and do not have to be distinguished.]

10. 4.3.3 Levels of categorization The basic level category has properties more salient than either the superordinate or subordinate levels…

11. 4.3.3.1 Basic level categories Q: What is special about basic level categories (car, apple, dog, knife, table)?

12. 4.3.3.1 Basic level categories Q: What is special about basic level categories (car, apple, dog, knife, table)? A: –Most inclusive level with characteristic patterns of behavioral interaction, for which a clear visual image can be formed, at which part-whole information is represented –Level used for everyday neutral reference –Level most rapidly accessed in categorization

14. 4.3.3.2 Superordinate level categories Q: What do we know about superordinate level categories (vehicle, fruit, furniture)?

15. 4.3.3.2 Superordinate level categories Q: What do we know about superordinate level categories (vehicle, fruit, furniture)? A: –within-category resemblance is relatively low –fewer defining attributes –one attribute tends to connect basic-level to superordinate-level categories –superordinate categories are often named with mass nouns and tend to be morphologically complex, whereas basic-level categories are named with count nouns that are morphologically simpler

16. 4.3.3.3 Subordinate level categories Q: What do we know about subordinate level categories (hatchback, Granny Smith, card table)?

17. 4.3.3.3 Subordinate level categories Q: What do we know about subordinate level categories (hatchback, Granny Smith, card table)? A: –less distinct from neighboring categories –not more informative than basic-level –frequently morphologically complex

19. 4.3.4 Shortcomings of prototype theory Simplistic nature of feature list – cannot account for interaction of factors Odd number paradox – people will score GOE even if there is a necc&suff criterion (1, 3, 5 are “better examples” of odd number than 135 or 10,975…) Where do features come from? Why are some categories mutually exclusive? Boundaries – where are they and how do they behave?

20. 4.3.5 The frame-based account of prototype effects Frames, ICMs can guide us toward a better understanding of the structure of cognitive categories.