1. 1 Dyadic Patterns Of Perpetration Of Physical Assault And Injury Of Dating Partners By Male And Female University Students In 32 Nations Yahayra Michel-Smith and Murray A. Straus Family Research Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, USA Durham, NH 03824 603-862-2594 murray.straus@unh.edumurray.straus@unh.edu or ycq4@unh.eduycq4@unh.edu Website: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2 Presented at the Stockholm Criminology Symposium, Stockholm, Sweden, 9 to 11 June, 2014. Other publications on this and related issues can be downloaded from http//:www.pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2 The work was supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant T32MH15161 and by the University of New Hampshire

2. Dyadic Types Defined A method of assessing behavior at the couple level – Not the same as male-to-female (or female-to-male) assault – Mutually Exclusive Typology How Measured – Only need one respondent – Cross tabulated individual level data Versions – Gender (Male-Only, Female-Only Both) – Partner Version (Self-Only, Partner-Only, Both) – Child Respondent (Mother-Only, Father-Only, Both) 2

3. Dyadic Types-Why Important Violence is not a homogenous phenomenon – One of several conflict management techniques – Interaction of two or more parties – Varies by the case – Is usually moralistic Effects vary based on type – Mental health – Antisocial symptoms – Criminal beliefs – Criminal behavior Informs the ongoing unilateral vs. bilateral debate 3 Black’s Conflict Management Theory

4. 4 Questions To Be Addressed 1.When there was physical violence, what percent of cases were in each DT? 1a. Does it vary by gender of respondent? 1b. Is there consistency over nations and regions? 2. Does the percent in each DT differ when data is based on severe assaults? 3.How often did men and women in each DT physically assault and injure their partner?

5. 5 DATA FROM THE INTERNATIONAL DATING VIOLENCE STUDY 2001-2006 http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID.htm  Convenience Sample of Students  14,252 At 68 Universities  In 32 Nations  Includes data from all major regions of the world

6. Region Nation N % Fe- male Mean Age All Nations 14,25271.423.1 Africa (2) ZAF S. Africa 10993.624.1 TZA Tanzania 17549.126.3 Asia (7) CHN China 75661.921.6 HKG China-HK 55169.924.6 IND India 9576.822.3 JPN Japan 13353.420.4 SGP Singapor 21669.025.0 KOR S. Korea 19059.524.8 TWN Taiwan 16275.920.2 Europe (13) BEL Belgium 70678.527.5 DEU Germany 48569.524.2 GBR Grt. Brit. 41885.921.0 GRC Greece 23176.221.1 HUN Hungary 16168.322.3 LTU Lithuania 38966.620.5 MLT Malta 10378.622.6 Region NationN % Fe- male Mean Age NLD Netherlands 38587.523.5 PRT Portugal 36067.221.8 ROU Romania 24490.221.0 RUS Russia 42960.119.9 SWE Sweden 67475.828.7 CHE Switzerland 31777.033.9 Latin Amer. (4) BRA Brazil 24568.221.1 GTM Guatemala 17648.319.7 MEX Mexico 20583.920.6 VEN Venezuela 26162.524.2 Middle East (2) IRN Iran 9876.522.4 ISR Israel 31882.131.0 North America (2) CAN Canada 113572.921.8 USA United St. 416269.121.7 Oceania (2) AUS Australia 23382.023.7 NZL New Zealand13078.521.7 Table 1 International Dating Violence Study Sample Students In A Relationship 6

7. 7 DATA FROM THE INTERNATIONAL DATING VIOLENCE STUDY http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID.htm  Convenience Sample of Students  14,252 At 68 Universities  In 32 Nations  Includes data from all major regions of the world  Questionnaires completed in class  Analyses Control For * Age * gender * SES * Social Desirability Scale * Nation

8. 8 DATA FROM THE INTERNATIONAL DATING VIOLENCE STUDY http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID.htm  Convenience Sample of Students  14,252 At 68 Universities  In 32 Nations  Includes data from all major regions of the world  Questionnaires completed in class  Analyses Control For * Age * gender * SES * Social Desirability Scale * Nation  VALIDITY OF THE DATA Concurrent validity: correlated with recognized international statistics Representative Samples Mean =.50 (.43 to.69)

9. 9 Partial r =.-.69 The Higher The Empowerment Of Women In A Nation, The Lower The Dominance Of Men In Dating Relationships (29 Nations)

10. Measures-Revised CTS2 Physical Assault (alpha =.86) – Kicked, bit or punched – Slapped – Threw something that could hurt – Grabbed – Twisted arm or hair – Beat up * – Choked * – Slammed against wall* – Used knife or gun* – Burned or scalded on purpose* Injury (alpha =.95) – Partner was cut or bleeding – Partner went to doctor for injury – Partner needed to see doctor but didn’t – Partner felt pain the next day – Partner had sprain or bruise – Partner’s private parts were bleeding 10

11. Q1: When there was physical violence, what percent of cases were in each DT? Q1a: Does it vary by gender? 11

12. 12 Table 2 Predicted Probabilities of –Any Assault Dyadic Types by Nations According to All Participants and Controlling for 4 variables * Male Only Female OnlyBoth Prevalence All Nations8.4%21.2% 70.4%31.0% Australia 14.3%21.8%63.9%26.5% Belgium 10.7%18.9%70.4%37.1% Brazil 16.4%13.2%70.4%25.5% Canada 9.5%22.1%68.3%28.1% China 5.8%32.5%61.7%38.9% Taiwan 10.8%23.3%65.9%35.3% Germany 12.8%25.7%61.5%29.0% Greece 23.0%16.2%60.8%39.4% Guatemala 10.5%25.9%63.7%28.7% Hong Kong 8.2%37.0%54.8%39.7% Hungary 10.7%19.3%70.0%26.1% India 8.5%10.9%80.6%36.9% Iran, Islamic R 6.5%1.3%92.2%80.0% Israel 7.6%31.5%60.9%21.1% Japan 7.7%16.1%76.2%18.4% South Korea 10.8%20.4%68.8%30.4% Lithuania 5.3%23.8%71.0%29.6% Malta 22.3%31.1%46.6%23.1% Mexico 7.5%13.1%79.4%51.3% Netherlands 4.9%23.0%72.1%32.7% New Zealand 9.1%27.7%63.2%32.8% Portugal 11.2%22.4%66.4%20.5% Romania 5.4%23.6%71.0%38.0% Russian Federate 2.9%28.1%69.0%33.1% Singapore 11.7%31.3%57.0%25.3% South Africa 5.2%4.8%90.0%37.1% Sweden 12.7%28.1%59.2%23.9% Switzerland 8.5%26.9%64.6%27.9% United Kingdom 4.0%18.2%77.8%36.9% Tanzania 5.7%3.3%91.0%39.1% United States 9.5%21.2%69.3%34.2% Venezuela 12.6%16.0%71.4%35.3% Prevalence rates varied widely across nations, but the dyadic type patterns were relatively consistent across nations Both-Assaulted was consistently the most prevalent dyadic types Female-Only was the next most common category in 27:32 nations Male-Only was the next highest category in 5 out of 32 nations Q1b: Is there consistency over nations?

13. Q2: Does the percent in each DT differ when data is based on severe assaults? Any Assault Severe Assault 13 Based on a prevalence rate of 31%

14. 14 Table 3 Predicted Probabilities of Severe Assault Dyadic Types by Nations According to All Participants and Controlling for 4 variables* Male OnlyFemale Only Both Prevalence All Nations13.6%29.6% 56.8%10.5% Australia 21.2%24.9%53.9%11.5% Belgium 16.5%33.5%50.0%12.1% Brazil 12.1%17.1%70.8%7.6% Canada 13.2%25.5%61.3%10.2% Taiwan 19.3%40.9%39.9%21.8% China 3.0%38.4%58.6%19.9% Germany 16.9%28.2%54.9%8.5% Greece 25.3%15.8%58.9%20.9% Guatemala 18.5%29.1%52.3%10.8% Hong Kong 9.0%43.1%47.9%17.5% Hungary 15.8%42.8%41.4%11.6% India 11.9%16.8%71.3%16.8% Iran, Islamic R 17.9%16.7%65.5%16.0% Israel 10.9%23.7%65.4%7.8% Japan 10.7%9.4%79.9%6.9% South Korea 10.4%22.1%67.5%14.1% Lithuania 15.5%36.3%48.1%7.6% Malta 41.6%46.6%11.8%7.7% Mexico 20.1%18.1%61.8%21.9% Netherlands 8.9%43.2%47.9%5.8% New Zealand 0.0%52.9%47.1%10.0% Portugal 21.3%8.5%70.2%7.5% Romania 19.6%34.8%45.5%15.6% Russian Federate 15.3%30.8%53.9%12.6% Singapore 8.3%46.4%45.3%5.5% South Africa 10.0%26.8%63.2%17.6% Sweden 33.9%39.7%26.4%3.6% Switzerland 8.2%34.3%57.5%6.6% United Kingdom 13.4%27.1%59.5%15.8% Tanzania 17.5%8.4%74.1%23.0% Unites States 14.8%28.5%56.7%14.1% Venezuela 17.3%17.5%65.2%20.7% Prevalence rates varied widely across nations, but the dyadic type patterns were relatively consistent across nations Both-Assaulted was the most prevalent dyadic types in 26:32 nations Female-Only was the next most common category in 27:32 nations Male-Only was the next highest category in 5 out of 32 nations Q2b: Is there consistency over nations?

15. Q3: How often did men and women in each DT injure their partner? 15 Based on a prevalence rate of 7%

16. 16 Table 4-Predicted Probabilities of Injury Dyadic Types According to All Participants and Controlling for 4 variables* % Male-Only% Female-Only% BothPrevalence All Regions16.7%14.4%68.9%7.4% Africa7.9%8.2%83.9%19.3% Asia25.9%16.3%57.8%8.0% Australia-New Zealand36.7%4.3%59.0%6.4% Europe19.7%17.5%62.8%6.4% Latin America11.1%16.6%72.3%9.2% Middle East3.8%7.2%89.0%22.0% North America-CAN20.4%6.2%73.3%8.3% North America-USA17.7%16.7%65.7%9.7% Prevalence rates varied widely across regions, but the dyadic type patterns were relatively consistent across nations Both-Assaulted was the most prevalent dyadic types in 8:8 regions (100%) Male-Only was the next highest category in 5 out of 8 regions Female-Only was the next most common category in 3:8 nations (25%) Q3a: Is there consistency over regions?

17. Summary of Findings This study obtained data on physical violence between partners in a relationship lasting more than 30 days. – Both most prevalent Female-Only is the second most common – Based on any assault, severe assault*and according to male and female respondents – Results based on injury also suggests Both is most prevalent Male-Only is the second most common – Findings relatively consistent across nations 17

18. Q4: What percent of male and female students in each DT were the first to hit? 18 Is the violence perpetrated by women accounted for by self-defense?

19. Q5: To what degree does the assaultive behavior of men and women who are in the Both DT differ? 19 Are dyadic types obscuring something? Both are doing it, but is it equally both?

20. ID6420 Women Beta -.72 Men Beta =.35 % Of Relationships Both Violent THE HIGHER THE PERCENT OF COUPLES IN A NATIONAL SETTINGS WHO WERE BOTH VIOLENT, THE HIGHER THE PERCENT INJURED Relationship is strong for both men & women, but even stronger for women % Injured Are men more effective at using violence?

21. 21 Are the results presented unique to this study, sample, measure, and type of respondent? Systematic Review of Dyadic Studies (in progress) 70+ studies 200+ comparisons Just partner violence (55) Rates varied, but pattern was the same Regardless of reporter (male, female or child) Regardless of measure CTS or not Regardless of sample Student sample Clinical sample Population sample Both was the prevalent dyadic type

22. 22 What Explains The Consistency Of Both-Assaulted? This is important to think about because the results suggest (with only a few exceptions) that there is a universal pattern.  Reciprocity and escalation Both more prevalent and more frequent  Modeling  CP associated with increased likelihood for both men and women  Relationship stronger for women overall  Exposure of both partners to similar risk and protective factors for the behavior

23. 23 Rsquare =.158 Beta =.398 Based on 30:32 Nations The higher the global peace index, the higher the prevalence of partner violence. Note: Stars represent nations with the highest and lowest prevalence rates.

24. 24 The higher the gender inequality index, the higher the prevalence of partner violence. Rsquare =.216 Beta =.465 Based on 31:32 Nations Note: Stars represent nations with the highest and lowest prevalence rates.

25. 25 The higher the gender inequality index, the higher the percent of couples in the Both-Assault categories. (ANY) Rsquare =.352 Beta=.593

26. What are the implications for research and intervention efforts? More attention needs to be given to bilateral couple violence in research and in practice. – In clinical work, the DT of the case should be assessed at intake (even if only one partner treated) – In research, more studies should ask questions about both parties involvement in violence Violence by both men and women needs to be addressed – Both-Assaulted is more prevalent – Both-Assaulted more frequent – Both –Assaulted is more likely to lead to injury – Both-Assaulted has been linked to worse outcomes for children Victim services need to continue to give priority to women victims because women are injured more than men 26

27. 27 PARTNER ASSAULT RATES BY AGE AND SEX OF OFFENDER (National Family Violence Survey N= 5,229). Chart from Straus, M. A., & Ramirez, I. L. (2007). Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by University students in Mexico and USA. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 281- 290. A Note About Age-Prevalence

28. A note about age-Dyadic Types Peak ages for partner assault vary by gender Women’s involvement in partner assault peaks in young adulthood. Men peak in early 30s.

29. 29 Limitations Convenience Sample of Students not representative Validity studies (previously referenced) Results replicated using representative samples Two-thirds of sample is women Data either controlled for gender or presented data separately for gender. US sample makes up close to 1/3 of sample Data presented separately by Nation Measure of severity initially based on researcher’s judgment of behavior that are highly likely to result in injury Consistent pattern when looking at “severe assaults” may be due to invalid severe measure Supported by factors analyses and interviews with women Reporting biases by gender Controlled for social desirability.

30. Moving Forward More work needs to be done in order to explain the consistency of the Both-Assaulted DT across 32 very different nations – More cross-national measures need to be evaluated as potential explanations Violence Acceptance Other measures of inequality – Qualitative studies can help explain these findings Subjective vs. Objective experience as suggested by GST – Look beyond physical assault and injury Interactions Are Men more “effective” in there use of violence? – If violence is moralistic in nature (or purposeful), then arguably we need to engage in it less.

31. ADDITIONAL SLIDES

32. 32 Dyadic Types Of Corporal Punishment By Parents of University Students in 15 nations (N=11,408) % Of Parents Fauchier and Straus, 2012 Q3. In what percent of cases was hitting only by the father, only the mother, or by both? DT-CP 02

33. Dyadic Types Of Spanking  The percent of students who stole money is lowest for those not spanked  Goes up when the father was the only spanker.  Goes up more when the mother was the only spanker  Is highest for students spanked at age 10 by both parents  Consistent with results on amount of spanking Q4. Is being spanked at age 10 related to nine measures of criminal propensity and actual crime as a young adult, and does it make a difference which parent spanks? % Who Stole Mone y DT-CP 0233

34. R =.40 % Spanked or hit a lot before age 12 Violence Approval Scale  The Relation Of Spanking To Violence Applies To Characteristics Of Nations  The Higher The Percent Of Students In A Nation Who Were Spanked The Stronger The Cultural Norms Approving Violent Behavior Such “A Man Should Not Walk Away From A Fight” 34DT-CP 02

35. 35 Predicted Probabilities of other Dyadic Types Overall and by Gender and Controlling for 4 variables* Gender of Respondent % Male Only% Female Only % Both Prevalence Male2.34.593.2 0.4 Female10.12.287.7 0.3 Any Psych AggressionTotal8.916.9 74.143.0 Male9.118.5 72.338.1 Female8.816.5 74.745.1 Severe Psych AggressionTotal14.626.8 58.626.0 Male18.216.9 64.922.5 Female13.331.055.8 27.9 Any Sexual CoercionTotal29.39.5 61.231.1 Male21.610.3 68.131.1 Female32.89.1 58.131.3 Physical Sexual CoercionTotal35.910.753.4 2.4 Male16.119.164.8 2.4 Female45.68.0 43.42.6 Verbal Sexual CoercionTotal37.215.9 46.92.5 Male23.919.0 57.02.3 Female42.814.5 42.72.6 Any IntransigenceTotal10.79.380.0 20.7 Male8.510.980.5 22.6 Female11.98.679.5 20.0

36. 36 NINE CRIMINALITY VARIABLES Percent That Score For Women Is Of Score For Men Women scored lower than men on all but one of 9 criminality measures The one exception: more women assaulted a dating partner % That Score of Women is of Male Score