1. Sociological Research
Sociology 101

2. A Look Ahead
How do sociologists go about setting up a research project?
How do they ensure that the results of the research are reliable and accurate?
Can they carry out their research without violating the rights of those they study?

3. Sociology is a science because it uses the same techniques as other sciences
Explaining social phenomena is what sociological theory is all about
Sociological theory is much more than speculation
Sociologists typically conduct two types of empirical studies.

4. Descriptive studies designed to find out what is happening to whom, where, and when.
Explanatory studies answer the questions why and how.

5. What is the Scientific Method?
Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

6. Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method

7. Scientific Method? Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature
State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate
Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept
Reviewing the Literature
Refines the problem under study
Helps us decide what questions to ask.

8. Formulate a Hypothesis
A tentative assumption.
A statement that speculates the relationship between two or more variables.
Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions.

9. Types of Variables
Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action

10. What is the Scientific Method?
Figure 2-3. Causal Logic

11. Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other
Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation.
correlations not based on causal connections are called spurious correlations

12. Correlation is when a change in one variables is associated in some way with a change in another variable.
Positive versus Negative Correlations

13. Collecting Data: Selecting the Sample
Research Design
Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

14. Sample: selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population
Random Sample: when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

15. Surveys
Study, generally in form of an interview or questionnaire, that provide sociologists with information about how people act or think
Interview researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning
Questionnaire researcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent

16. Surveys
Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

17. Observation
Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community
Participant observation: when sociologist joins a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates
Ethnography: efforts to describe entire social setting through extended systematic observation

18. Experiments
Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables
Experimental group: exposed to independent variable
Control group: not exposed to independent variable
Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

19. Use of Existing Sources
Secondary Analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
A. Uniform Crime Reports - The annual publication of the FBI presenting official statistics on the rates and trends in crime in the USA.

20. Table 2-1: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

21. Table 2-2: Major Research Designs

22. Analyzing the Data Statistical analysis
b. NORC - National Opinion Research Center.
Analyzing the Data
Statistical analysis

23. Developing the Conclusion
Supporting the Hypothesis
Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis
Controlling for Other Factors
Control Variable: factor that is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

24. Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

25. Table 2-1: Top Reasons Why Men and Women had Sex

26. Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

27. Table 2-3: Major Research Designs

28. Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support

29. Ethics of Research Confidentiality Research Funding Value Neutrality
Feminist Methodology

30. Technology and Sociological Research
Extends range and capability to conduct research
Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information
Web-based surveys in early stages, but initial results promising

31. Studying Human Sexuality
The Issue
Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content
How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic?

32. Studying Human Sexuality
The Setting
Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S.
Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

33. Studying Human Sexuality
Sociological Insights
Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research
ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agency’s perspective on what needs to be studied

34. Studying Human Sexuality
Policy Initiatives
In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices
Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S.
Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research

35. Figure 2-5: Percent of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content

36. Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100
Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values
Mode: Single most common value in a series of values
Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

37. Reading Graphs and Tables
Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions
Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables
Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand

38. Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana

39. Figure 2-7: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age

40. Writing a Research Report
Finding Information
Check textbooks
Use library catalog
Use computerized periodical indexes
Examine government documents
Use newspapers
Ask people, organizations, and agencies
Consult instructor

41. Writing a Research Report
Writing the Report
Focus on topic
Develop an outline
Work ahead of deadline
Read paper aloud
Including Citations and References