Module 2: Nutritional Strategies to Minimize Nutrient Loss to Manure

Module 2: Nutritional Strategies to Minimize Nutrient Loss to Manure
By Dave Hansen

Certified Nutrient Management Planning
Goal The goal of this module is to help producers maximize nutrient utilization on their animal operations while avoiding waste and overfeeding. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Objectives The main objectives of this module are to provide information to CAFO Owner/Operators regarding: Basic concepts in animal nutrition. How to improve nutrient yield. Techniques for reducing ammonia loss. Economic considerations when reducing nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) excretion. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Contents Basic nutrient cycling in animal systems National Research Council (NRC) guidelines Dietary strategies to improve nutrient efficiency Dairy Beef Swine Poultry Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Basic Nutrient Cycling
The idea is the same regardless of animal (or bird) type: to provide adequate nutrients while minimizing waste. Providing nutrients in excess of animal requirements results in increased costs of production and contributes to potential environmental problems. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Basic Nutrient Cycling (continued)
Nutrients available for growth Feed provided Feed waste Intestinal secretions (enzymes, cells) Nutrients absorbed Feed consumed Nutrients used for growth Inefficiencies Growth Mismatch Waste Maintenance Undigested feed and secretions Inefficiencies can be caused by a variety of factors including housing conditions, management, genetics, and feed quality. Nutrient paths in animal feeding operations. Source: van Heugten and van Kempen 2000 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Nutrient Flow in an Animal Operation Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Basic Nutrient Cycling
Nitrogen and P present different challenges. Improving the efficiency of N use often includes changes in the source of N, such as improving forage quality or supplementing with amino acids. Improving the efficiency of P use often includes reducing unnecessary additions of supplemental P (as with ruminants) or increasing the availability of dietary P through such techniques as adding phytase (as with swine and poultry). Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines In 1916 the National Academy of Sciences organized the NRC to “…associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government.” The various subcommittees address animal nutrition issues and develop guidelines for each animal type. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines (continued)
These guidelines are updated periodically to incorporate new information. The following tables are for dairy, beef cattle, swine, and poultry. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Dairy Holstein, 1,5000 lb., average body condition 65 mo.age 90 Days in Milk Early Lactation Dry, Pregnant 270 Days in Gestation BW 1,656 lb Milk yield, lb/d 55 77 99 120 Dry matter intake lb/d 44.7 51.9 59.2 66 29.7 34.3 30.1 Net energy, Mcal/lb 0.62 0.67 0.7 0.73 0.94 1.01 .48 Diet % RDP 9.5 9.7 9.8 10.5 8.7 Diet % RUP 4.6 5.5 6.2 6.9 7 9 2.1 Crude Proteina % 14.1 15.2 16.0 16.7 17.5 19.5 10.8 Calcium, % 0.61 0.60 0.74 0.79 0.45 Phosphorus,% 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.23 Potassiumb, % 1.00 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.19 1.24 0.52 Sodium, % 0.22 0.34 0.10 Copperc, ppm 11 16 13 Zinc, ppm 43 48 52 65 73 22 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Beef, Finishing
Body Weight, lb. 525 650 775 900 1025 1150 Dry Matter Intake, lb/d 14 17 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5 Crude Protein, lb/d Daily Gain, lb. 1.0 1.22 1.36 1.49 1.57 1.65 1.72 1.8 1.55 1.69 1.82 1.86 1.91 1.95 2.5 1.87 2.01 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 3.3 2.18 2.32 2.43 2.40 2.38 2.36 4.0 2.49 2.62 2.73 2.66 2.60 2.54 Calcium, lb/d 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.11 Phosphorus, lb/d 0.02 0.03 .04 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Beef, Cows
Months Since Body DM CP Calving Weight Intake Ca P lb . lb. lb/d 0 (Calving) 1,340 24.6 2.20 0.06 0.04 1 1,200 26.8 2.71 0.08 0.05 2 (Peak Milk) 27.8 2.97 0.09 3 1,205 28.4 2.82 4 27.4 2.54 0.07 5 26.5 2.26 6 1,210 25.7 2.04 7 (Weaning) 1,215 24.2 1.45 0.03 8 1,225 24.1 1.49 9 1,240 24.0 1.57 10 1,260 23.9 1.69 11 1,290 1.89 Protein, Ca, and P requirements for beef cows Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Swine Nutrient Pig Weight 3 - 5 kg (7 11 lb) 5 10 kg (11-22 lb) 20 kg (22-44 lb 20 50 kg ( lb) 50 80 kg ( lb) 80 120 kg ( lb) Crude Protein, % 26.0 23.7 20.9 18.0 15.5 13.2 Lysine, % total 1.5 1.35 1.15 0.95 0.75 0.60 Lysine, % appt. ileal dig 1.26 1.11 0.94 0.77 0.61 0.47 Calcium, % 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.50 0.45 P, % total 0.65 0.40 avail. 0.55 0.32 0.23 0.19 0.15 Potassium, 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.17 Sodium, % 0.25 0.20 0.10 Copper, mg 6 4 3.5 Zinc, mg 100 60 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Poultry-Chickens
Nutrient Layer-80a,b Layer-100a,b Layer-120a,b Broiler 0-3 wk Broiler 3-6 wk Broiler 6-8 wk Protein, % 18.8 15.0 12.5 23.0 20.0 18.0 Ca, % 4.06 3.25 2.71 1.00 0.90 0.80 Pc, % 0.31 0.25 0.21 0.45 0.35 0.30 Potassium, % 0.19 0.15 0.13 Copper, mg ? 8 Zinc, mg 44 35 29 40 Sodium, % 0.20 0.12 a Grams feed intake/hen daily b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and an assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs daily per 100 hens). c Phosphorus is nPP. 1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, National Research Council. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Poultry-Turkeys
Nutrient Turkey 0-3 wk 3-6 wk 6-9 wk 9-12 wk 12-15 wk 15-18 wk Protein, % 28.0 26.0 22.0 19.0 16.5 14.0 Ca, % 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 P, %c 0.6 0.5 0.42 0.38 0.32 0.28 Potassium, % 0.7 0.4 Copper, mg 8 6 Zinc, mg 70 65 50 40 Sodium., % 0.17 0.15 0.12 a Grams feed intake/hen daily b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and an assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs daily per 100 hens). c Phosphorus is nPP. 1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, National Research Council. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Guidelines: Poultry-Other
Nutrient Duck 0-2 wk 2-7 wk Breeding Turkey Tom Turkey Hen Protein, % 22.0 16.0 15 12.0 14.0 Ca,% 0.65 0.60 2.75 0.50 2.25 P,%C 0.40 0.30 ? 0.25 0.35 Potassium, % 0.4 0.6 Copper, mg 6 8 Zinc, mg 60 40 65 Sodium, % 0.15 0.12 a Grams feed intake/hen daily b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and an assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs/100 hens daily). c Phosphorus is nPP. 1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, National Research Council. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feed Waste Poor feeder design, poor feeder management, and spoilage during storage can lead to losses as great as 20%. Example: Swine “rooting” through feed can cause 3.4% waste. Example: Feed costs account for as much as 70% of the cost of raising poultry–a little waste means big $$. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Strategies to Improve Nutrient Efficiency
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Strategies for Dairy Producers
Properly formulate rations to Optimize milk yield. Minimize N, P, and potassium excretion in urine/manure. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Strategies for Dairy Producers (continued)
Precisely meet requirements for Milk production. Maintenance. Gestation. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Key Concepts of Nutrient Balance on a Dairy Farm
Understand nutrient INPUTS, OUTPUTS, and % of nutrients that remain on the farm or that are lost to the environment. Assess your nutrient balance. This allows you to determine management options that increase the recycling of nutrients from cropland to cattle and back to crops again. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Key Concepts of Nutrient Balance on a Dairy Farm (continued)
The percentage of dietary N and P that remain on the dairy farm can be as high as 76% and 81% (respectively). Point: Profitable milk production includes both milk productivity and efficiency of nutrient utilization. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Nitrogen Strategies for Dairy
Increase dry matter uptake. Improve forage quality. Consider forage protein fraction. Consider feeding method. Consider supplemental protein source. Monitor blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and milk urea nitrogen (MUN). Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Nitrogen Balance 76% 71% 64% % Remaining on farm 90.2 51.5 3.9
Remainder 28.3 20.5 2.2 Total Outputs .01 Crops sold 1.9 0.1 Cattle sold 26.4 18.6 2.0 Milk Output 118.5 72.0 6.1 Total inputs Purchased cattle 13.9 14.6 1.3 N fixation by legumes 78.5 43.8 3.8 Purchased feed 26.1 13.5 1.0 Purchased fertilizer -----(tons of N per year)----- Input 500 320 45 Size of Dairy, Number of Cows* Table Mass N balance for New York dairy farms. Source: Klausner 1993 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

A Few Terms and Definitions
Crude protein (CP) = N x 6.25 Rumen degradable protein (RDP) = CP that is degraded in the rumen; required by bacteria to grow Rumen undegradable protein (RUP) = “escape or bypass” CP that is NOT degraded in rumen but passes to lower tract Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Increase Dry Matter Uptake
The percentage of CP required to supply adequate protein for milk production varies with intake level. Increasing dry matter intake by 5% reduces the CP needed by about 1%. Higher intake levels also increase microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. Increasing intake level, then, can decrease the need for higher dietary protein. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Improve Forage Quality
“High-quality” forage contains more protein, less fiber, and more energy, resulting in more protein and digestible dry matter for the animals, which can help reduce the amount of N inputs from off-farm sources. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Forage Protein Fractions
Supplementing a highly degradable (e.g., legume silage) forage with a less degradable forage (e.g., corn silage) can improve milk production at lower CP levels. Common supplemental RUP sources include blood meal, distillers grains, and soybeans. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeding Method Feeding sequence, frequency, and grouping strategy can impact N utilization. Lactating cows require a proper balance of RUP and RDP to meet requirements for metabolizable protein (MP). MP is the protein that the cow actually absorbs and uses for production. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeding Method (continued)
Requirement for RUP = 35% to 38% of CP Requirement for RDP = 62% to 65% of CP A study by Van Horn (1992) showed the impact of considering RUP and RDP. The lactating cows fed the proper amount of RUP to supplement RDP generated 223 pounds of N per year in manure. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeding Method (continued)
The cows fed simply to satisfy Total CP (i.e., a higher percentage of RUP) generated 260 pounds of N per year in manure. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Monitor BUN and MUN The MUN test > 18 mg/dl indicates that too much protein is being fed or there is not enough dietary starch. High MUN is related to Lower reproductive performance. Higher feed costs. Health problems. Poorer milk production. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Monitor BUN and MUN (continued)
MUN analyses can be used to signal potential problems with feeding programs. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phosphorus Strategies for Dairy
Phosphorus is an expensive supplement. Most commercial mixes include P. Current guidelines specify 0.32% to 0.42% P for lactating cows. It is common for producers to feed as much as 0.60% P. Numerous studies show no production benefit from these high levels of P! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phosphorus Balance 75% 59% 81% % Remaining on farm 18.2 6.2 1.8
Remainder 6.0 4.3 0.43 Total Outputs 0.01 Crops sold 0.5 0.05 Cattle sold 5.5 3.8 0.36 Milk Output 24.2 10.4 2.2 Total inputs 0.03 14.2 8.4 1.0 Purchased feed 2.0 1.2 Purchased fertilizer -----(tons of P per year)----- Input 500 320 45 Size of Dairy, Number of Cows* Mass P balance for New York dairy farms Source: Klausner 1993 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Effect of P Intake on P Excretion
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0.4 0.5 0.6 P excretion (lb) Increasing P content from 0.40% to 0.60% of diet dry matter increases P output from 40 to 69 lbs/cow/year! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Sources of P High availability Monocalcium phosphate Dicalcium phosphate Monosodium or ammonium phosphate Medium availability Steamed bone meal Sodium tripolyphosphate Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Sources of P (continued)
Low availability Low-fluorine rock phosphate Soft rock phosphate Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phytate P Phytate-P is not readily available to non-ruminants such as swine. However, rumen microbes produce phytase. Releases P from phytate So, phytate-P is available to ruminants. And, it is not necessary to over-supplement P above requirements. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeding Excess P Costs $$$
P is the most expensive mineral commonly supplemented in dairy cows. Example: A diet containing 0.45% P vs. a diet containing 0.55% P would save about $0.05 per cow daily. For 100 cows a year, that is $1,825. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeding P: The Bottom Line
The milking herd should be grouped by production level so that multiple rations can be formulated over the complete lactation. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

The Bottom Line for Dairies
Are high milk yield and minimal nutrient excretion mutually exclusive? No, you can do both! Focus on Testing all forages/feeds. Properly formulating rations. Maximizing feed intake. Cow comfort and proper grouping. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Strategies for Beef Cattle
Develop a general understanding of N (protein) and P metabolism in feedlot cattle. Understand current methods for decreasing N and P excretion by manipulating beef feedlot diets P requirements Protein requirements Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Nitrogen Management Discuss protein requirements Impact of lowering dietary N Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Protein Theory for lowering protein All excess protein above requirements have no value. Excess protein is absorbed in the small intestine. Protein is de-animated in the liver. Urea is subsequently excreted in urine at the kidney. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Protein (continued)
Urea is rapidly converted to ammonia following deposition. Therefore, Feeding less protein leads to less urea excretion. Lower urea excretion should decrease ammonia. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Protein (continued)
CP system Assumes all proteins are equal. Important point: protein is N % N * 6.25, protein is ~16% N Does not account for bacterial needs. Is simple but incorrect! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Protein Requirements MP system DIP * TDN * microbe efficiency = BCP (degradable N and energy) Efficiency dependent on rumen pH, ~8-8.5 BCP*.64 to determine protein at S.I. UIP * .80 to estimate protein at S.I. BCP + UIP = MP Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Protein Requirements (continued)
NH3 + carbon = microbial protein (BCP) Feed protein urea, corn protein MP DIP UIP Rumen Small Intestine MP system BCP Certified Nutrient Management Planning

N Balance Summary Overfeeding protein increases N losses. Nutrition may: Decrease N inputs by 10% to 20%. Reduce N excretion by 12% to 21%. Reduce N volatilization by 15% to 33%. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

N Balance Summary (continued)
Volatilization depends on the time of year. Summer–60 to 70% of N excreted Winter/spring–40% of N excreted Based on annual occupancy, lose 50% of N excreted. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Management P intake Ex. ADG x NRC predicts requirements from 0.22% to 0.32% of diet DM. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary P in Feedlot Diets
0.27 0.35 0.52 0.59 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 85% Corn 85% Corn + Supplement Byproduct Byproduct + % diet P (DM-basis) Corn Roughage Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Requirements: Yearlings
SE Bone Ash P intake Phalanx % DM g/d g % HCW Erickson et al., J. Anim. Sci. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Requirements: Yearlings (continued)
Phalanx Metacarpal Erickson et al., J. Anim. Sci. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Requirements: Calves
Feed % of Diet DM % P High-moisture corn Brewers grits Corn bran Cottonseed hulls Animal fat Supplement Note: NaH2PO4 provided as top-dress supplement at increments of 0.06% P. Base diet = 0.16% P, and 0.22, 0.28, 0.34, 0.40 Erickson et al., J. Anim. Sci. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Mass Balance: Summer Yearlings
Feedlot Pen 7.2 lb intake 1.9 lb animal 5.3 lb excreted 12.8 lb 10.9 lb 0.35% P diet 0.24% P diet REDUCED 44% Erickson et al., ISAAFPW, 2000 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Mass Balance: Winter/Spring Calves
Feedlot Pen 9.9 lb intake 2.4 lb animal 7.5 lb excreted 15.0 lb 2.5 lb 12.5 lb 0.40% P diet 0.26% P diet REDUCED 33% Erickson et al., ISAAFPW, 2000 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Mass Balance (continued)
15,690 acres 8,624 acres Assume: 50% of surrounding land used 30 lb/ac P applied (agronomic) 10,000 hd feedlot, 90 acres 0.35%-0.40% P 234,000 lb/yr 0.22%-0.30% P 128,000 lb/yr Assume: (same) Certified Nutrient Management Planning

P Balance Conclusions Overfeeding P leads to elevated manure P. Nutrition may: Decrease P inputs by 33% to 45%. Reduce P excretion by 40% to 50%. Direct reduction in acres needed Expect manure removal = nutrient excretion for P Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Beef Strategies Overview
Test feed. Use supplemental protein. Discontinue supplemental P. Consider phase feeding. Utilize differences between DIP and UIP. Use available tools to evaluate your rations. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Summary Nutrition can have a major impact on N and P excretion for feedlot cattle. Phosphorus supplementation is unnecessary. It is difficult to further decrease P below what corn provides. Utilizing an MP system may lower N excretion. Decreased urinary N excretion decreases N volatilization losses. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Summary (continued) Volatization is a large concern. More management options and/or nutritional techniques need to be explored. Fine-tuning requirements on the MP system is needed. Eventually, metabolizable amino acids (AAs) will be useful similar to the ideal protein concept in monogastrics. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Strategies for Swine Feed waste issues Improving N management AAs Improving P management Phytate-P Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Nutrition: The Easy Way to Reduce Waste?
Under field conditions, animals use nutrients with mediocre efficiency: P: 30% N: 30% to 35% Under lab conditions: N: 70% P: close to 100% There is a lot of potential for reducing waste. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

The Key: Understanding Inefficiencies in Nutrient Utilization
Many steps are involved in the utilization of nutrients. Each step has inefficiencies associated with it. The key to reducing waste is to understand where utilization can be influenced. Nutrients available for growth Feed provided Feed waste Intestinal secretions (enzymes, cells) Nutrients absorbed Feed consumed Nutrients used for growth Inefficiencies Growth Mismatch Waste Maintenance Undigested feed and secretions Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feed Waste: An Expensive Loss of Nutrients
Adherence: pigs take 1.5 g feed away from feeder 60 times/day (~ 4% of “intake”) Portion may be returned. Spillage: pigs push 3.4% of feed out of feeder (in practice, range 1.5% to 20%). Feed provided Feed waste Waste Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feed Waste: An Expensive Loss of Nutrients (continued)
Presuming 5% waste on average: Responsible for 7.5% of N in waste. Similar contribution for copper, zinc, and P 35% of carbohydrates Major source of odor Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Management: Key to Solving Feed Waste . . .
Traditional guidelines: Proper feeder care and adjustment can reduce feed waste drastically. Bottom of feeders should be 50% covered with fresh feed. Pig needs to exert effort to eat. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Management: Key to Solving Feed Waste . . . (continued)
Feeders should be inspected at least weekly. Clean and adjust where necessary. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeder Design may add to the Problem.
Feeders should be sized properly. Only one pig per feeder space Challenge given that pigs change in size Pigs should not have to step in feeders to gain access to feed. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeder Design may add to the Problem. (continued)
Feeders should be deep enough to prevent pigs from pushing out feed. Catch 22 but 8 inches deep seems to work reasonably well. Problem exaggerated in wean-finish buildings. Feeders should not have “dead” corners where feed gets trapped and spoils. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feeder Design: The “Ideal”
Pigs like to chew and swallow with their heads straight. Traditional feeder design does not allow this over the feeder. Pig needs to back up. Waste falls in the pit. Thus, feeders should be “spacious.” Filling level not an issue? Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Present Feed in most Palatable Form.
Feed should be pelleted. Reduces feed waste ~5% Dry feed is not very palatable. Pigs move back and forth from feeder to waterer while eating, dropping feed. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Present Feed in most Palatable Form. (continued)
Wet-dry or liquid feeders Back and forth motion is prevented. Reduces feed waste Increases feed intake and weight gain Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Select Highly Digestible Ingredients.
Feed Ingredient Digestibility, Content, % Corn 85 8.5 14 0.28 Soybean meal 48 87 49.0 23 0.69 Soybean meal 44 84 45.6 31 0.65 Wheat 89 13.3 50 0.37 Wheat bran 75 15.7 29 1.20 Barley 10.6 30 0.36 Sorghum 83 9.2 20 0.29 Meat & bone meal 49.1 95 4.98 Poultry byproducts 77 57.7 2.41 Fish meal 88 62.9 2.20 Dicalcium phosph 100 18.50 Phosphorus Protein Adapted from NRC 1998, and the Rhone-Poulenc Nutrition Guide 1993. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

New Crops offer new Solutions.
Normal Corn Low - Phytate Corn Total 0.25 0.28 0.20 0.10 Bio available 0.05 0.21 Low-phytate corn and soybeans have much higher P digestibility. Low-stacchyose soybean meal has higher protein and energy digestibility. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Processing can Improve Nutrient Digestibility.
Grinding: Grind feed to uniform particle size of ~ 600 microns. Pelleting: Improves protein digestibility 3.7%. Processing the feed(stuffs) can improve digestibility as well. Best examples are grinding and pelleting. Expanding/extruding may work for some diets/ingredients, but not for all. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Processing can Improve Nutrient Digestibility. (continued)
Expanding/extruding: Improves pellet quality. Effects on digestibility are very diet-dependent. Effects can be negative! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Opportunities with Enzymes
Fiber-degrading enzymes Wheat/barley/rye as major ingredients: Xylanase/beta-glucanase improve digestibility 2% to 9%. Corn-soy diets: Alpha-galactosidase, proteases, etc. may prove effective. Fermenting is used for corn cobs (corncob mix) and some other high fiber ingredients, and we can expect to see enzyme treatments become more prevalent. The data on enzymes in pigs are not very consistent (in contrast to poultry). My take is, though, that enzymes like xylanases work equally well in pigs if the diet contains sufficient fiber. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phytase Effect on P Availability
Plants contain a large portion of P in the form of phytate. Pigs cannot digest phytate. Most plant P is thus unavailable. Phytase can break down phytate, releasing the P. In a typical diet, P availability increases from 30% to 50%. 30% reduction in P excretion Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Feed Quality Affects the Recycling of Enzyme Protein.
High-fiber diets reduce the absorption of protein, including enzymes. Fiber is the single most predictive factor for apparent protein digestion. Has a strong negative influence Certified Nutrient Management Planning

The More Ingredients that are used, the Better the Match!
Feed nutrients often are wasted because the diet is not ideal. A 1% point reduction in dietary protein results in a 10% decrease in N excretion and ammonia emission. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

The More Ingredients that are used, the Better the Match! (continued)
Contributors to this issue: Small number of ingredients. Limits flexibility in matching animal-specific profile. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Formulate on Available Nutrients.
Availability of nutrients is not uniform. In typical feed, N > P and Lys > Cys. Presuming that all nutrients are equally available leads to larger mismatch, may hurt perfor-mance, and thus increases waste. Diets formulated on total or digestible amino acids Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Diets Should be Optimally Matched to the Animal’s Requirement.
Nutritional requirements change with: Maintenance requirement (affected by sex, age, and weight). Gain and composition of gain. Health status, environmental conditions, and activity. Introduction to phase and split sex feeding Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Diets Should be Optimally Matched to the Animal’s Requirement. (continued) Examples of nutritional strategies: Split-sex feeding Barrows require more energy for maintenance than gilts. Increase energy-to-protein ratio of the feed for barrows. The key to these programs is to understand what component of the requirement changes with different sexes, ages, health status, etc. The effect of sex is that barrows require more energy for maintenance, thus diets should be relatively more rich in energy than protein. Given their ability to eat more, it is more attractive to lower the protein content instead. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Diets Should be Optimally Matched to the Animal’s Requirement. (continued) Temperature outside of thermo-neutral zone Energy is used for thermo-regulation. Increase energy-to-protein ratio. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phase Feeding Reduces Waste
Nutritional requirements change continuously. Protein-to-energy ratio of feed decreases with age. Diet should be adjusted to match this decrease. Phase feeding Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phase Feeding Reduces Waste. (continued)
Inefficiencies occur when the diet provides more nutrients than the animal needs: More phases = less waste Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phase-Feeding Diets are less Expensive.
More phases = less waste and cheaper diets. But also = more hassle Compromise between number of phases and benefits achievable In-line mixers/liquid feeding systems allow for continuously changing the diet composition without increasing hassle. Phase feeding provides benefits as diets are cheaper and as less waste is produced. Logistically, they can pose challenges, though, but these can be prevented with modern feed equipment. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phase-Feeding Diets are less Expensive. (continued)
Diet cost obtained using least-cost feed formulation for a varying number of phases in the feeding program. This graph illustrates that diet cost decreases when more phases are introduced (not considering the costs of logistics). Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Precision Nutrition is Hindered by Feed Manufacturing Issues.
Variation in ingredient quality Somewhat compensated for by over formulating (= more waste) Weighing errors Mixing problems Ingredient quality, weighing errors, and mixing problems lead to additional variation in feed quality. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Precision Nutrition is Hindered by Feed Manufacturing Issues. (continued) All augment waste and possibly reduce performance. Weighing errors were observed in 14 feed mills specializing in swine feeds. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Is Mineral Nutrition Overdone?
Diets are typically over-formulated as a measure of security. Increases waste. Sow Diets Finisher Diets Mineral Req. Range Median 1 Calcium, % 0.75 0.62 - 2.01 1.21 0.50 0.57 1.38 0.96 Phos phorus, % 0.60 0.45 1.17 0.84 0.40 0.78 Copper, ppm 5 12 222 22 3 9 – 281 20 Zinc, ppm 50 79 497 167 103 205 149 These data are from a study by Dr. Spears. He analyzed feed samples collected on farms in North Carolina and showed that the diets ranged substantially in Ca, P, Cu, and Zn content, many of the diets being much higher than the NRC requirement dictates. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Is Mineral Nutrition Overdone? (continued)
The P requirement is higher for maximizing bone strength than for maximizing gain. Difference of 0.1% point For non-reproducing animals, formulating diets to maximize gain may be warranted. Phosphorus can be formulated to a level to maximize bone strength, and to a level to maximize performance. The latter is approximately 0.1% lower than the former. This strategy has the potential to lead to broken bones during transport and packing, which should be prevented. Also, it is not suitable for replacement gilts. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Strategies for Poultry
Nitrogen management Amino acid Phase feeding Enzymes and additives Phosphorus management Available P Phytate-P Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Tracking N in Broilers 18.3% 30.6% 51.1% Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Strategies for N
Formulate on amino acids (AAs), not CP. Optimize the dietary AA profile. Phase feeding Utilize the “true AA digestibility” of feeds. Select feed ingredients with low nutrient availability. Utilize enzymes and feed additives. Avoid anti-nutritional factors. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Formulate on Amino Acids
Formulating based on AA rather than CP can lower N content by lowering dietary N input. Utilizing AAs, such as methionine and lysine, reduces dietary protein from 18% to 16% and reduces the cost of the diet by more than $4/ton. Although it is possible to reduce dietary CP levels by 3% to 4% (13%-22% N), there are biological limits to the amount of dietary protein that can be replaced with synthetic AAs. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

NRC Requirement vs. 23% CP Corn/Soy Diet
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Optimize the Dietary AA Profile
Matching the birds' dietary AA with their biological needs minimizes N excretion. However, simply supplementing AAs, such as methionine and lysine, can result in excesses of other AAs that are then excreted. A possible solution is an “ideal protein” supplement that provides all the essential AAs in their proper proportion. These “proper proportions” are not always known! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phase Feeding The nutritional requirements of birds change over time. Example: Broilers require approximately 22% CP at hatching and 16% CP at four weeks. Commercial programs can include as many as six different phases to step down dietary protein. Further refinements are possible based on feed sources and timing of grow-out period. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Utilize “True AA Digestibility.”
Amino acid digestibility varies with feed type. Diets should be based on the digestible fraction rather than simply the amount of AAs present in the feed. Calculated digestible AA requirements can be 8%-10% lower than total AA requirements. Formulation based on digestible AAs improves daily gain and feed conversion. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Select “Low-Nutrient” Feeds.
Variability in the nutrient values of common feeds leads nutritionists to add a margin of safety, ensuring that nutritional needs are met. Example: The AA content of meat meal can vary by as much as 45%. Rapid ingredient analysis techniques, such as NIR, provide real-time information on the feed's nutritional value. This information reduces the need for over-formulation as a safety margin. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Meat Meal Variation AA A B C Mean CV % Met 0.61 0.41 0.49 0.50 20.13 Cys 0.70 0.30 0.39 0.46 45.62 Lys 2.77 1.93 1.94 2.21 21.82 Thr 1.73 1.12 1.25 1.37 23.45 Arg 3.62 3.00 2.90 3.17 12.3 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Utilize Enzymes and Additives.
Water-soluble, nonstarch polysaccharides (NSPs) impede digestion and absorption of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Many important diet constituents, such as soybean and peas, contain complex NSPs. Phytase improves the digestibility of AAs and protein as well as phytate-P. Dietary enzymes can improve the digestibility of fiber and carbohydrates. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Avoid Anti-Nutritional Factors.
Many legumes and cereal grains contain compounds that have a negative effect on digestion and the availability of AAs and other nutrients. Soybean contain, among other things, a trypsin inhibitor that impedes protein digestion. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Avoid Anti-Nutritional Factors. (continued)
Some beans, particularly field beans, have high concentrations of lectins that can reduce growth and decrease nutrient absorption. Minimizing the use of these inputs will increase nutrient utilization by the birds. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Tracking P in Broilers 35.0% 57.4% Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Dietary Strategies for P
Meet bird P requirements. Select ingredients with available P. Use vitamin D. Use feed additives/enzymes. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Meet Bird P Requirements.
The NRC (1994) recommends 250 mg of available P (non-phytate) per hen per day Leghorn breeders guide recommends 450 mg-460 mg/day early in lay and 288 mg-390 mg late in the cycle. Research (Scott et al. 1999, Boling et al. 2000, and Angel 2000) suggests that the NRC guidelines are adequate. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Meet Bird P Requirements. (continued)
In a four-week period, 1.2 million hens in a large complex consume 7.4 million lbs of feed (3,696 tons). If dietary available P were reduced from 450 mg to 250 mg/hen/day, it represents a $4.82/ton cost savings in dietary dicalcium phosphate, totaling $17,814 in feed costs. With such a formulation, fecal P2O5 is reduced approximately 35,000 lbs in one month! Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Select Ingredients with Available P.
Birds do not absorb phytic acid, or phytate-P, well. Many cereal grains, such as corn and soybeans, have a high percentage of their total P in the phytate form, which results in an availability of less than 20%. Animal meals and fish meal have nearly 100% available P. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Select Ingredients with Available P. (continued)
Inorganic supplements also have a relatively high P availability. New products, such as low-phytate corn, are not yet commercially available but have two to three times as much available P as “standard” corn varieties. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Phosphate Supplement Comparison
Compound Biological Value Beta-trical phosphate Std 100 Reagent: Monocal PO4 Reagent: Dical PO4 95-100 Feed: Phosphoric acid Feed: Dical/Monocal P Feed: Bone meal 90-100 Feed: Rock phosphate 55-75 Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Use Vitamin D. Vitamin D deficiencies inhibit P metabolism. Adding 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 reduced phytate-P excretion by broilers by 35% and increased retention by 20% (Edwards 1993). Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Use Feed Additives/Enzymes.
Birds absorb phytate-P poorly because they lack the enzyme phytase. In addition to improving AA efficiency, adding phytase to poultry diets improves the digestibility of phytate-P. Reductions in fecal P excretions from using phytase can be as much as 40%. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Use Feed Additives/Enzymes. (continued)
Enzymatic “cocktails” containing a mixture of enzymes, including phytase, have been found to be more effective that phytase alone. Such cocktails can improve calcium retention, weight gain, feed conversion, and toe tibia ash. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Overall Summary Numerous dietary and management strategies exist to reduce N excretions. P excretions. Significant reductions can be achieved without significant expense by using the information and guidelines available from the NRC and from various research and Extension publications. Certified Nutrient Management Planning

Module 2: Nutritional Strategies to Minimize Nutrient Loss to Manure

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Module 2: Nutritional Strategies to Minimize Nutrient Loss to Manure

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