1. Chapter 4
Russia

2. I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or Budding Democracy
Between global politics defined by competition between the USA and USSR
Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left the Russian Federation as the largest piece of territory remaining from the USSR, its population was cut in half, but it still remained the largest country in the world in terms of geographic size
Boris Yeltsin became 1st president of the Russian Federation, he initiated “Shock Therapy” reforms
Democracy
Free Market Economy

3. Oligarchy vs. Democracy Continued
Oligarchy – a small group of Yeltsin’s family members and personal advisors took control of government and granted themselves favors and inviting political and economic corruption
Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has attempted to contain the oligarchies influence in some aspects of government
Centralization of Power in President
Movement towards authoritarian rule
Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with democracy and free market economy)
Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule

4. II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia came from the Politburo of the Communist Party
Politburo – small group of men who climbed the ranks of the party through the nomenklatura system.
Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party soviets to the “commanding heights” of leadership
When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.

5. III. Legitimacy
Political legitimacy for Russia is currently very low, partly because changes are a drastic departure from the past
Recent evidence that country is stabilizing under Putin.
Putin may use authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak, illiberal democracy.
Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong, centralized, autocratic rule
Tsars
Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism
Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of the many
Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism
Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although power of the president can technically be checked by popular elections and the Duma

6. IV. Historical Influences on Politics
Absolute, Centralized Rule
Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity – ethnic diversity and numerous “republics” and “autonomous regions” reflected in name “Russian Federation”
Revolutions of 20th Century

7. V. Political Culture Characteristics Geographic Setting
Eastern Orthodoxy
Equality of Result
Hostile toward Government
Importance of Nationality

8. Geographic Setting Geographic Setting Largest country in world
Contains 11 time zones
Majority of country is north of 49th degree latitude (U.S. – Canada border)
Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in inhospitable or inaccessible geographic locations

9. Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy
Early in their history Russians established ties with Constantinople and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as their religion
This meant that they did not share the values of the Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism
Russian statism existed in contrast to Western “civil society”

10. Equality of Result Equality of Result
Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the Russian people already strong in a country of peasants with similar living standards
Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union
Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income
Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity
Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to the development of capitalism

11. Hostility toward Government & Nationality
Hostility to Gov’t
Despite strong, central authority and Russian statism citizens can be surprisingly hostile toward their government
Years of repression spark resentment that leads to badmouthing of political leaders
Pessimism towards political and economic policies
Importance of Nationality
Cultural heterogeneity
Discrimination and historical stereotypes
Baltic peoples usually viewed favorably, Muslim-Turks viewed in a negative light
Anti-Semitism was strong under the Tsars, some nationalists in Russia blame the Jews for Russia’s current problems

12. VI. Political & Economic Change
Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars – ruled Russia from the 14th century to the early 20th. Control of Russia passed down through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but transitions were often accompanied by brutality and assassinations
20th century rule by Communist Party – began in 1917 when Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991 when a failed coup from within the government created chaos
Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets in 1991 – President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place to help create the Russian Federation

13. 19th Century Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812
Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia
Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of tsarist absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825
Revolt crushed by Nicholas I
Crimean War – Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire. Defeat was a significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership among Russians
Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and execution of dissenters in 19th century
Alexander II only 19th century tsar to embrace reforms, however he was assassinated in 1881.
He freed Russian serfs
Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies)
Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and intensifying efforts of secret police.

14. Revolution of 1917
Causes
Russia’s defeat in Russo-Japanese War ( )
Ineffectiveness in World War I
Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians defeated by Japanese
Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in 1917 amidst World War I
Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and shoes, military defections from the war helped send the state into chaos

15. Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Mensheviks – Russian Marxists who believed that socialist revolutions would first take place in industrialized countries such as Germany and England, Russians would have to wait to modernize
Vladimir Lenin – communist who disagreed with Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a “vanguard” leadership group to lead the revolution in the name of the people
Bolsheviks – followers of Lenin, practice Marxism-Leninism, took control of Russian government in late 1917 (October Revolution).

16. Stalinism Stalin places Communist Party (CPSU) at center of control
Leaders identified through nomenklatura – process of selecting individuals from lower levels within party (Kept a file for anybody who was somebody)
Politburo: “heart and soul” of Communist Party, group of 12 men from the Central Committee who ran the country, all government agencies and departments were at their disposal and carried out their decisions
-General Secretary: head of the Politburo, “dictator” of the country (Stalin was General Secretary from 1927–1953)

17. Stalinism II Collectivization & Industrialization
Replaced the NEP with “collective farms”
Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to cities or labor camps
Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy industry such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories fueled by agricultural surplus produced from the farms
Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of Five-Year Plans, became the center for the economy, determined production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union
Stalinism – the two-pronged program of collectivization and industrialization, carried out by central planning, executed with force and brutality

18. Stalin’s Foreign Policy
Primary concern internal development, foreign policy was meant to support this
Stalin advocated “socialism in one country”
Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the United States, become a growing foreign policy concern for Stalin
Cold War

19. The Purges Execution of millions of Soviet citizens
As many as one million communist party members executed
Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the party
Generals, Central Committee members, and Politburo officials purged as a result of Stalin’s paranoia

20. Gorbachev Takes over as General Secretary in the mid-1980’s
Leads a younger generation of communists
Educated and more “westernized” then previous Soviet leaders
Initiates a wave of reforms that included:
Glasnost
Perestroika
Demokratizatsiia

21. Glasnost – “Openness”
Open discussion of political, social, and economic issues
Allowed for open criticism of government and government policies
Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the party lay in improving the economic well-being of the country and it’s people
Open market relations
Pragmatic economic policy
Less secretive government

22. Perestroika – “Restructuring”
Loosened controls of the Communist Party, allowing group formation in other sectors of society
Economic Restructuring
Modernization from within
Transfer economic power from central government to private hands and market economy
Authorization of privately owned companies
Penalties for under-performing state factories
Price reforms
Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies
Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms

23. Demokratizatsiia
Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic characteristics into the old Soviet structure
However, he did want to maintain Communist Party control
Reforms included:
A new Congress of People’s Deputies with directly elected representatives
New position of “President” that was selected by the Congress
Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev
Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both liberal and conservative members of Communist Party

24. Revolution of 1991
August 1991
Led by “Conservatives” (those opposed to, or who wanted to abandon Gorbachev’s reforms)
Vice-president
Head of the KGB
Top military advisers
Coup failed when popular protests erupted and soldiers defected rather than support their leaders
Protesters were led by Boris Yeltsin, president elect of the Russian Republic
Gorbachev restored to power, but by December 1991 eleven Soviet republics declared their independence
Gorbachev officially announces dissolution of Soviet Union

25. Boris Yeltsin
Former member of Politburo, removed because his radical views offended conservatives
Even more extreme than Gorbachev
Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting procedures put in place by Gorbachev
Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves
Attempts to create a “western-style” democracy
“Shock Therapy” economic reforms (Immediate market economy)
Russian economy does not respond to “shock therapy” reforms
Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma

26. Yeltsin II Poor president Hires and fires numerous prime ministers
Alcoholic & frequently ill; this leads to erratic political behavior
Resigns before the 2000 elections
Vladimir Putin, Yeltsin’s prime minister, takes over and wins the 2000 & 2004 elections

27. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State
Nationality
Most important single cleavage in Russia
80% of population is Russian
Others include:
Tatars
Ukrainians
Armenians
Chuvashes
Bashkis
Byelorussians
Moldavians

28. Nationality continued
Nationality cleavages determine the organization of the country into “federations”, “autonomous regions”, republics, and provinces
Many ethnic groups would like to have their independence, but are enticed by trade benefits with the Russian government to stay in the Federation
Chechnya is the one exception

29. Chechnya Primarily Muslim region of Russia
Contains some valuable resources, such as oil fields
Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control
Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly children

30. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Religion
Russian Orthodox under the tsars
All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions rule
Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox Church to reestablish itself as a signal of a break from communism and a reflection of old Russian nationalism
Other religions represented in very small percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims, Protestants)

31. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Social Class
Russian society much more egalitarian than western societies with a few notable exceptions
Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members, and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance was given to economic and social background
Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former KGB and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders in Russia after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for refusing to pay or underpaying government taxes

32. Rural vs. Urban Life
73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the western part of the country
Economic divide between rural and urban residents is wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia
Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch with western culture

33. Political Participation
During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore was close to 100%
Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet Union that followed through to the Russian Federation
In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the U.S.
Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%, but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the country
Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to less than 65% for the 2004 elections
Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil society
Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party
Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups

34. VIII. Political Institutions (Federalism or Unitary)
Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it still maintained a federal government structure
Russian Federation has retained this model, with the current regime consisting of 89 regions, 21 of which are ethnically non-Russian by majority
Each region is bound by treaty to the Federation, not all have officially signed on (Chechnya)
Most regions are called “republics”
Many republics ruled themselves independently, but Putin has cracked down on this
Putin ended direct election of the 89 regional governors, they are now nominated by the president and confirmed by the regional legislatures

35. IX. Linkage Institutions
Political Parties
Elections
Interest Groups
Media

36. Political Parties Began forming after Revolution of 1991
Small, factional
Formed around particular leaders
“Bloc of General Andrey Nikolaev and Academician Svyaloslav Fyodorov”
“Yuri Boldyrev Movement” (“Yabloko”)
Formed around particular issues
“Party of Pensioners”
“Agrarian Party of Russia”
“Women of Russia”
Political Parties Today (United Russia, Communist Party, Reform Parties)

37. United Russia Founded in April 2001
Merger between “Fatherland All-Russia” Party and the “United Party of Russia”
United Party put together by oligarch Boris Berezovsky and other entrepreneurs to support Putin in the election of 2000
Merger put even more political support behind Putin
United Russia won 221 of the 450 Duma seats in 2004 elections
Putin won re-election in 2004 as the United Russia candidate
United Russia is hard to define other than that it is pro-Putin

38. Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF)
Communist Party of the old Soviet Union (CPSU)
After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats
After parliamentary election of 2003 only retained 51 of the 450 Duma seats
Party is less reformist than other parties, Zyuganov opposed the reforms initiated by Gorbachev
Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism
Would like to see Russia regain territories it lost after Soviet Union dissolution

39. Reformist Parties Yabloko Union of Right Forces
Taken strongest stand for pro-democracy
Survived since 1993
Name is acronym for its three founders, also means “apple”
Gained 4.4% of vote in 2003 parliamentary elections (4 seats) making it ineligible for proportional representation
Union of Right Forces
“Rightest” only in the sense of seeking truth
Emphasizes development of free market
Supports privatization of industry
Had 29 seats in Duma prior to 2003
After 2003 elections only won 3 seats (less than 5% of the vote)

40. Liberal Democratic Party
Controversial party
Extreme nationalist
Anti-semitic
Sexist
Attacks reformist leaders and disliked Yeltsin
Said he would use nuclear weapons on Japan if he were elected
Party reformulated as “Zhirinovsky’s Bloc” for 2000 presidential election, he received 2.7% of vote
Party did receive about 11% of vote in 2003 Duma elections (won 37 seats)

41. Elections
3 types
Referendum
Duma Elections
Presidential Elections

42. Constitution of 1993 Created a three-branch government
President & Prime Minister
Lower legislative house (DUMA)
Constitutional Court
Referendum - allowed for president to call for national referenda by popular vote on important issues
Yeltsin’s first referendum was on his job performance
Second was for approval of the constitution itself

43. Interest Groups II
Huge fortunes made by oligarchs and the mafia offend the equality of opportunity principle of the Russian people
Putin arrested television magnate Vladimir Gusinsky for corruption and his company was given to a state-owned monopoly
In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian government was consolidating power
Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes, forcing it into bankruptcy
Russian Media – a linkage institution with close ties to both the state and the oligarchy, has been manipulated by dominant political and interest groups to pursue their own causes

44. X. Institutions of Government A. President & Prime Minister
Duties of the President
Appoints the prime minister and cabinet – Duma must approve prime minister’s appointment, but if they reject the president’s nominee three times, the president may dissolve the Duma
Issue decrees that have force of law – cabinet has great deal of power, Duma can not censure cabinet according to Constitution of 1993
Dissolve the Duma – done by Yeltsin during legislative coup attempt of 1993
Prime Minister: relationship between PM and President not exactly clear, but with no vice-president if anything happens to president the PM assumes the office of president

45. B. Bicameral Legislature
Duma
Lower House
450 deputies
Half chosen by proportional representation
Half by single-member district plurality
Passes Bills
Approves Budgets
Confirms president’s political appointments
Federation Council
Upper House
Two members elected from each of the 89 regions of the federation
Power to delay legislation
On paper Federation Council can change boundaries of republics, ratify use of armed forces, and appoint and remove judges. These powers have yet to be use however

46. C. Judiciary Supreme Court Constitutional Court
Created by 1993 Constitution
Serves as final court of appeals in criminal & civil cases
Constitutional Court
19 members
Appointed by president and confirmed by Federation Council

47. D. Military Was a source of strength during the Soviet era, 1945-1991
Once stood at over 4 million men
Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues under the Russian Federation
One prominent general, Alexander Lebed, gained political following before the 1996 election and had to be coopted by Yeltsin in order for Yeltsin to win reelection
Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to early 21st century
Withdrawal from Afghanistan
Defeated by Chechen guerrillas in conflict
Often ill-equipped, Russian soldiers had to feed themselves and went unpaid for months in late 1990’s and early 21st century

48. XI. Public Policy/Current Issues
The Economy
At the heart of the Soviet demise in 1991
Perestroika reforms – market economy programs inserted into traditional centralized state ownership design
“Shock Therapy reforms” – created chaotic conditions that resulted in a small group of entrepreneurs running the economy
In 1997 economy collapsed when government defaulted on billions of dollars of debts
Russian stock market lost half its value, threatened global markets as well
Ruble lost value rapidly, by 2002 it took more than 30,000 rubles to equal one dollar
The overall economy did see slight improvements in 1999–2000
In 2004 the economy grew 7%, and standards of living improved, the first real signs that the Russian economy was starting to thrive again

49. Foreign Policy Relations with Former Republics
Confederation of Independent States (CIS)
Russia is the clear leader of organization
Is not nearly as successful, economically and politically, as the EU
Bonded together by trade agreements
Tensions of nationality issues
Putin’s meddling in Ukrainian election of 2004 was cause for concern
Relations with the World
Adjustment period for Russia following Cold War and loss of superpower status
Offered aid and foreign investment by U.S.
Accepted into the G-7 (now known as G-8)
UN Security Council permanent member
Russia set to join the WTO in July 2007