1. Procedures and Stacks

2. Outline Stack organization PUSH and POP instructions Defining and Calling procedures

3. The stack Space used as temporary storage during the execution of a program Purpose: –saving the return address when calling procedures –saving the contents of registers used in procedures –passing parameters to procedures –Allocation of memory for local variables in procedures A single access point. LIFO data structure –Data is always accessed from the “top” of the stack –Insertion is done by “pushing” data onto the top of the stack –Deletion is done by “popping” data from the top of the stack Stack operations reduce the size of code by using the stack as an implied operand

4. Stack layout in memory In use Free SS SS:SP Original SP Direction of increasing memory addresses Stack grows in direction of decreasing memory addresses

5. Stack layout in memory SS – Stack segment register desigates a segment containing the stack SP – points always to the top of the stack –SP is decreased when data is pushed. E.g. if we push a word SP is decreased by 2 –SP is increased when data is popped. E.g. is we pop a word SP is increased by 2 BP points to elements in the stack –Remember that BP is the register that you use in your programs to access data from the stack –It will come into play when we communicate with “C”

6. Push example 6AB3 0800 Segment index 6A B3 037FF 03800 037FE 03000 To address 12FFF Stack segment SS SP DX CX BX AX Register array PUSH BX SP before push SP after push

7. Pop example 392F 1006 0000 39 2F 01007 01008 01006 00000 To address 0FFFF Stack segment SS SP DX CX BX AX Register array POP BX SP after pop SP before pop

8. PUSH and POP Instructions which access the stack PUSH and POP always store/load words, not bytes In 386 and above you can also push/pop doublewords PUSH X –X can be immediate data, 16-bit register, segment register or 2 bytes of memory POP X –X can be 16-bit register, segment register except CS and memory location

9. PUSHA and POPA “Push All” and “Pop All” In 286 and later it is possible to push/pop the entire set of general purpose registers –AX,BX,CX,DX,SP,BP,SI,DI

10. Using the stack Storage –Return address when a procedure is called –Preserve the contents of registers –Local variables required by procedures –Dynamically allocated memory Communication –Parameters passed to procedures

11. Why preserve registers? In principle, Registers are global variables Registers can also be used as temporary storage in a procedure If a procedure needs to use registers as temporary storage and these registers contain “useful” global variables, their contents must be preserved The first instructions in a procedure should save them and the last instructions should restore them

12. Example: preserving registers Take careful note of the ordering PUSH AX; Place AX on the stack PUSH BX; Place BX on the stack PUSH CX; Place CX on the stack PUSH DX; Place DX on the stack PUSH SI; Place SI on the stack PUSH DI; Place DI on the stack ; code that modifies AX,BX,CX,SI,DI POP DI; Restore original value of DI POP SI; Restore original value of SI POP DX; Restore original value of DX POP CX; Restore original value of CX POP BX; Restore original value of BX POP AX; Restore original value of AX

13. Calling procedures and using the stack call proc_name –Pushes the instruction pointer (IP) onto the stack –Pushes CS onto the stack if the call is to a procedure outside the code segment –Unconditionally jumps to the label proc_name ret –Pop saved IP and, if necessary, the saved CS and restores their values in the registers –Causing instruction execution to resume at the instruction after the original call

14. Simple Procedure example mov ax, 10h mov bx, 20h mov cx, 30h mov dx, 40h call AddRegs;this proc adds AX + BX + CX + DX  AX call sysExit AddRegs: add ax, bx add ax, cx add ax, dx ret

15. Procedures at a glance Procedures can access global variables declared at the beginning of the program Procedures can access global variables stored in registers Procedures may have parameters passed to them –Registers holding values is a form of parameter passing –Pushing parameters onto the stack is another form of parameter passing (this is what “C” relies on) Procedures may need to preserve registers –Unless other conventions are in place, calling code usually expects that all registers are restored to their original values upon return from the call Procedures may return results to the caller in registers or write results in memory, or leave results on the stack

16. Stack Guidelines There must be a one-to-one match between push and pop instructions The first pop is matched to the last push –E.g. Last in, first out Messing up the stack makes for great confusion! Also, Do not push/pop registers intended to store return values. A register in which a return value is expected (usually AX) is expected to be changed, so do not save or restore it.

17. Organizing your program Create a block diagram or pseudocode of your program in paper –Control flow –Data flow Break the program into logical “components” that can be easily translated to procedures in your code Use descriptive names for variables –Noun_type for types –Nouns for variables –Verbs for procedures

18. Organizing your program Modular program organization helps debugging –Makes it easier to ‘isolate’ the bug to a single procedure All programs contain bugs! –This is overstated… –It really means that you shouldn’t expect your program to work the first time you run it… Maybe not the 10 th either! –…but you shouldn’t feel bad about it either, relax and trace the bug –Use the debugger! Its VERY HARD to debug assembly code without one.

19. Tracing bugs The debugging process: –Set breakpoints in your programs and use them as checkpoints for checking the contents of registers/memory –Comment out code, this might help you find out whether the commented out code contains the bug Comment as you go, otherwise you will quickly forget what you expected your code to accomplish Use your pseudo code as comments to the right of the assembly code implementation