1. THE MOST IMPORTANT MARKS OF PUNCTUATION ARE:
. PERIOD (FULL STOP)
? QUESTION MARK
! EXCLAMATION POINT
-- DASH
- HYPHEN
‘ APOSTROPHE
, COMMA
; SEMICOLON
: COLON
“” DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS
‘’ SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS
() PARENTHESES
[] BRACKETS

2. END STOPS
ARE MARKS OF PUNCUATION USED AT THE END OF A SENTENCE: PERIOD, QUESTION MARK, EXCLAMATION POINT. 95% OF ALL SENTENCES END WITH A PERIOD.
USE A PERIOD
AT THE END OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
AFTER MOST ABBREVIATIONS e.g. Oct.14, at 4 p.m.
PROPERLY IN AN OUTLINE: e.g.
Pre-work jitters
The night before
1. Setting the alarm clock
2. Sleeplessness
USE THREE SPACED PERIODS TO INDICATE OMISSION e.g. Some books are good, others are…not.
BEFORE A DECIMAL, TO SEPARATE DOLLARS AND CENTS: e.g % $ $0.95

3. END STOPS Use an exclamation point
To end a forceful interjection or to indicate surprise or vigorous emotion: e.g. May I ask you-please!-to help me.
REMEMBER
THAT EMOTION, SURPRISE, COMMAND SHOULD BE STRONG TO WARRANT THE “!”.
WRITING DOTTED WITH “!”S IS A FORM OF “SCHOOLGIRL STYLE”
AN “!” AFTER A LONG SENTENCE LOOKS SILLY; MOST OF US DON’T HAVE SUFFICIENT BREATH TO EXCLAIM MORE THAT A FEW WORDS AT A TIME.
TO USE A “.”, NOT AN “!” AFTER A MILDLY IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
e.g. Take your time and work carefully.
Use a question mark
at the end of every direct question
to indicate a series of queries in the same sentence
e.g. Are you going? Is your sister? John? Sheila?

4. THE COMMA
SERVES MANY DIFFERENT PURPOSES AND IS THE MOST WIDELY USED MARK OF PUNCTUATION. IT IS ALSO THE MOST TROUBLESOME.
“PANDA IS A SMALL ANIMAL THAT … EATS, SHOOTS, AND LEAVES”
FOUR PURPOSES OF THE COMMA:
TO INTRODUCE, TO SEPARATE, TO ENCLOSE AND SHOW OMISSION.
1) USE IT TO SEPARATE LONG INDEPENDENT CLAUSES IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE.
2) USE IT TO SET OFF A LONG INTRODUCTORY PHRASE FROM AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
3) USE A PAIR OF COMMAS TO SET OFF WORDS INSERTED W/IN A SENTENCE
4) USE COMMAS TO DIVIDE ELEMENTS IN A SERIES
5) USE A COMMA TO PREVENT MISREADING:
e.g. The morning after a policeman came to the door.

5. COMMAS TO INTRODUCE
1) TO INTRODUCE A WORD, PHRASE, OR, ON OCCASION, A CLAUSE
e.g. If you want something done well, do it yourself.
2) TO INTRODUCE A STATEMENT OR QUESTION:
e.g. I wondered, why is she so aggressive?
3) TO INTRODUCE A SHORT QUOTATION:
e.g. “I’ll never forget that,” she replied.
UNLESS A “?” OR A “!” IS NEEDED:
e.g. “Do you think she’ll be there?”
NB! WHEN THE QUOTATION IS EITHER LONG OR FORMAL, USE A COLON RATHER THAN A COMMA

6. COMMAS TO SEPARATE
1) TO SEPARATE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES JOINED BY CONJUNCTIONS AND, BUT, YET, NEITHER, NOR, OR
e.g. She didn’t like her work, and her distaste was obvious.
SOMETIMES COMMA IS OMITTED, IF THE CLAUSE IS SHORT (4-5 WORDS LONG)
2) TO SEPARATE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE FROM THE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
e.g. By working hard and pleasing his employers, Steve got a pay-raise.
3) TO SEPARATE WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES IN A SERIES
e.g. I chose a tray, selected my food, and paid the cashier.
SOME WRITERS OMIT THE COMMA BEFORE THE CONJUNCTION: “A, B and C”
4) TO SEPARATE TWO OR MORE ADJECTIVES WHEN THEY EQUALLY MODIFY THE SAME NOUN:
e.g. She wore an old, dirty dress and a new, pretty, expensive coat.
WHEN THE ADJECTIVES DO NOT MODIFY EQUALLY, USE NO COMMAS: e.g. A large green bug settled on the torn autumn leaf.

7. COMMAS TO SEPARATE 5) TO SEPARATE CONTRASTED ELEMENTS IN A SENTENCE:
e.g. The word begins with an s, not a c.
6) TO SEPARATE WORDS THAT MIGHT BE MISREAD
e.g. The stock advanced five points, to twenty-one.
Soon after, she got up and left the house.
The day after, the supervisor was absent himself.
7) TO SEPARATE THOUSANDS, MILLIONS, ETC., IN FIGURES:
e.g. The deficit amounted to $8,765,432,100
COMMAS ARE NOT USED IN TELEPHONE #, YEARS, HOUSE #, ZIP CODES, SERIAL NUMBERS, ETC.

8. COMMAS TO ENCLOSE
1) TO INCLOSE PARENTHETICAL WORDS, PHRASES, OR CLAUSES:
e.g. You are, on the other hand, well suited for this work.
I believe, whether or not you want to know my opinion, that our company policy is wrong.
2) TO ENCLOSE NON-DEFINING CLAUSES:
e.g. Denver, which is the capital of Colorado, is densely populated.
The books, those that I own, are all paperbacks.
3) TO ENCLOSE ABSOLUTE PHRASES:
e.g. The performance over, we rose to our feet.
4) TO ENCLOSE WORDS IN APPOSITION:
e.g. James Green, our manager, was a kindly man.
5) TO ENCLOSE VOCATIVES:
e.g. Workers of the world, unite!
6) TO ENCLOSE INITIALS OR TITLES FOLLOWING A PERSON’S NAME:
e.g. John Campbell, Ph.D., and Robert Romano, M.A. are members of the Council.
7) TO ENCLOSE PLACES AND DATES WHICH EXPLAIN PRECEDING PLACES
e.g. He lives in Miami, Florida. His address is 1607 Ravinia Road, Peru 29, Illinois

9. COMMAS TO INDICATE OMISSION
MOST SENTENCES WHICH REQUIRE A COMMA TO MAKE CLEAR THAT SOMETHING HAS BEEN LEFT OUT ARE POORELY CONSTRUCTED AND SHOULD BE REPHRASED.
IN RARE INSTANCES, HOWEVER, USING A COMMA TO SHOW OMISSION HELPS TO AVOID WORDINESS:
e.g. In this office are ten workers; in that one are sixteen
In this office are ten workers; in that, sixteen.

10. UNNECESSARY COMMAS DO NOT USE A COMMA
1)BEFORE THE FIRST AND AFTER THE LAST MEMBER OF A SERIES:
e.g. The tea was a cold, sweet, refreshing, drink.
2) TO SEPARATE A SUBJECT FROM ITS PREDICATE:
e.g. We requested that the road be resurfaced.
3) BEFORE INDIRECT QUOTATION:
e.g. The candidate stated that he was against taxation.
4) BETWEEN TWO INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WHERE A STRONGER MARK OF PUNCTUATION IS REQUIRED “COMMA SPLICE”:
e.g. The foreman told me to be there early, I told him I couldn’t.
5) W/WORDS IN APPOSITION WHICH ARE DIFINING:
e.g. My sister Margaret is a lovely woman.

11. UNNECESSARY COMMAS (cont.)
6) Indiscriminately to replace the word omitted:
e.g. Robin said, he would come to see me.
(the comma is incorrectly used for “that”)
7) IN ANY SITUATION UNLESS IT ADDS TO CLARITY AND UNDERSTANDING:
e.g. Naturally, the first thing you should do, after reporting for work, is to see your supervisor.
After the play, Martha and I went home, by taxicab, because we wanted, at all cost, to avoid subway crowds.

12. THE SEMICOLON
THE SEMICOLON IS A STRONGER MARK OF PUNCTUATION THAN THE COMMA; IT SIGNIFIES A GREATER BREAK OR A LONGER OAUSE BETWEEN SENTENCE ELEMENTS.
REMEMBER: THE SMICOLON IS USED ONLY BETWEEN ELEMENTS OF EQUAL RANK; IT IS ENTIRELY A MARK OF COORDINATION.
USE THE SEMICOLON:
1) TO SEPARATE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES NOT JOINED BY A SIMPLE CONJUNCTION:
e.g. “If you make people think they’re thinking, they’ll love you; if you really make them think, they’ll hate you.” – Marquis
2) TO SEPARATE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES JOINED BY A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB (ALSO, ANYHOW, BESIDES, CONSEQUENTLY, FURTHERMORE, HOWEVER, MOREOVER, OTHERWISE, THEREFORE, THUS, ETC.):
e.g. This job is not simple; however, it’s exciting and rewarding.

13. THE SEMICOLON (cont.)
3) BETWEEN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WHICH ARE LENGTHY OR CONTAIN INTERNAL PUNCTUATION:
e.g. “As long as war is regarded as wicked, it will have its fascination; when it is looked upon as vulgar, it will cease to be popular.” – Wilde
DO NOT OVERUSE SEMICOLON
ORDINARILY, THE SEMICOLON HAS THE SAME FUCTION AS A PERIOD: IT INDICATES A COMPLETE BREAK, THE END OF ONE THOUGHT AND THE BEGINNING OF ANOTHER.
ONE FAIRLY SAFE GUIDE IS: NO PERIOD, NO SEMICOLON:
e.g. Inasmuch as Joe has a fiery temper; we have to be careful what we say to him.
(a comma should be used instead of the semicolon)
DO NOT USE IT AS A MARK OF INTRODUCTION:
e.g. Dear Sir;
DO NOT USE IT AS A SUMMARIZING MARK:
e.g. Answering the phone, typing, filing; these were my duties last summer.

14. THE COLON
THE COLON IS A MARK OF EXPECTATION OR ADDITION. IT’S PRIMARY FUNCTION IS TO SIGNAL THE READER TO “WATCH FOR WHAT’S COMING.”
USE THE COLON:
1) TO INTRODUCE A WORD, A PHRASE, OR CLAUSE, OR AFTER AN INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT:
e.g. This is my problem: what do I do now?
2) TO SEPARATE INTRODUCTORY WORDS FROM A LONG OR FORMAL QUOTATION WHICH FOLLOWS:
e.g. Jefferson concluded his First Inaugural Address as follows: “And may that Infinite Power which rules the destines of the universe…”
3) AS A SEPARATING MARK IN SPECIAL SITUATIONS:
IN BUSINESS LETTERS: e.g. Dear Mr. James:
TITLES AND SUBTITLES OF BOOKS: e.g. The English Novel: A Panorama
HOUR AND MINUTE FIGURES: e.g. 10:15 a.m.
CHAPTERS AND VERSES OF THE BIBLE: e.g. Exodus, 12:31
VOLUMES AND PAGE REFERENCES: e.g. War and Peace, II:122

15. THE COLON (cont.) e.g. I am fond of: New Orleans, Seattle, Denver.
DO NOT OVERUSE THE COLON
DO NOT PLACE A COLON BETWEEN A PREPOSITION AND OBJECT:
e.g. I am fond of: New Orleans, Seattle, Denver.
DO NOT PLACE A COLON BETWEEN A VERB AND ITS OBJECT:
e.g. He liked to see: TV plays, movies, and sitcoms.
She likes a number of activities, such as: swimming, dancing, and cooking.

16. THE DASH
THE DASH IS A MARK OF PUNCTUATION USED TO DENOTE A SUDDEN BREAK OR SHIFT IN THOUGHT.
“THE INTERRUPTION, THE MARK OF ABRUPTNESS, THE SOB, THE STAMMER, THE MARK OF IGNORANCE.”
IT IS THE ONLY MARK OF PUNCTUATION WHICH IS NOT ON THE STANDARD KEYBOARD. TO TYPE A DASH, USE TWO HYPHENS; NO SPACE PRECEDES OR FOLLOW THE HYPHENS.
USE THE DASH:
1) TO INDICATE A BREAK OR SHIFT IN THOUGHT:
e.g. Do we—can we—dare we ask for more money?
2) TO INTRODUCE A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS WHICH YOU WISH TO EMPHASIZE:
e.g. What he needed most he never got—love.
3) TO SET OFF STRONGLY DISTINGUISHED PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL: e.g. I think—no, I am positive—that you should go.
4) TO INDICATE OMISSION OF LETTERS AND WORDS:
e.g. Senator S– was from my hometown.
June—October 1990

17. THE HYPHEN MARK OF SEPARATION USED BETWEEN PARTS OF A WORD.
USE A HYPHEN:
1) TO SEPARATE (JOIN) THE PARTS OF COMPOUND WORDS:
e.g. fast-moving; sister-in-law; half-asleep; X-ray; know-it-all; forty-seven; three-fourths
2) TO INDICATE THE DIVISION OF A WORD BROKEN AT THE END OF A LINE:
e.g. knowl-edge, ste-nog-ra-pher
Never divide a monosyllable: e.g. strength, laughed
Do not divide on a syllable with a silent vowel: e.g. climbed, yelled
Do not divide a word with only 4 letters: e.g. also, only, open
Divide two consonants standing between vowels: e.g. struc-ture, alter-native, exis-ten-tialism
Do not divide sums of money
Do not divide initials in a name or in proper names
Do not divide units of time

18. QUOTATION MARKS USE QUOTATION MARKS
1) TO ENCLOSE EVERY DIRECT QUOTATION AND EACH PART OF AN INTERRUPTED QUOTATION:
e.g. “What will my starting salary be?” I asked the manager.
“Well,” he replied, “I’m not sure.”
2) IN A DIALOGUE USE A SEPARATE PARAGRAPH FOR EACH CHANGE OF SPEAKER:
e.g. “Dad,” cried Neil.
“There, there, it’s gonna be just fine,” his father said.
3) TO ENCLOSE WORDS WITH A WIDELY DIFFERENT LEVEL OF USAGE:
e.g. The person who has “had it” so far is Saddam.
4) TO ENCLOSE CHAPTER HEADINGS AND THE TITLES OF ARTICLES:
e.g. Grant Wood’s famed painting, “American Gothic,” was recently reproduced in American Heritage.
5) USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS TO ENCLOSE A QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION: e.g. The coach said, ”When you say, ‘I’ll be there on time,’ I expect you to mean what you say.”

19. QUOTATION MARKS (cont.)
In the British Isles the use of the single and double quotation marks is reversed from the way they are used in the United States. There the normal quotations and short titles are within single quotation marks. Double quotation marks are used for titles or quotations within quotation marks.
PLACE QUOTATION MARKS CORRECTLY WITH REFERENCE TO OTHER MARKS
THE COMMA AND THE PERIOD ALWAYS COME INSIDE QUOTATION MARKS.
A QUESTION MARK, EXCLAMATION POINT, OR DASH COMES OUTSIDE QUOTATION MARKS UNLESS IT IS PART OF THE QUOTATION. A SINGLE QUESTION MARK COMES INSIDE QUOTATION MARKS WHEN BOTH THE NON-QUOTED AND QUOTED ELEMENTS ARE QUESTIONED.
THE SEMICOLON AND COLON COME OUSIDE QUOTATION MARKS.

20. THE APOSTROPHE HAS THREE USES:
TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
TO INDICATE OMISSION OF A LETTER FROM WORDS OR A FIGURE FROM NUMERALS
TO INDICATE THE PLURALS OF LETTERS, NUMERALS, SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS.
USE THE APOSTROPHE
1) AND S TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF A NOUN NOT ENDING IN S: e.g. children’s; town’s
2) TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF A PLURAL NOUN ENDING IN S:
e.g. boys’; ladies’
3) ALONE OR WITH S TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE OF NOUNS ENDING IS S:
e.g. Robert Burns’ /Burns’s; (RULE: WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE)
4) AND S A IN THE LAST ELEMENT OF COMPOUND NOUNS:
e.g. my son-in-law’s boat; King Henry IV’s funeral; somebody else’s ticket
5) TO SHOW THAT LETTERS OF FIGURES HAVE BEEN OMITTED:
e.g. aren’t; shouldn’t; The Civil War was fought 1861-’65.
6) AND S TO INDICATE THE PLURALS OF NUMERALS, LETTERS, ETC.
e.g. Uncrossed t’s look like 1’s. He uses too many and’s and but’s in speaking.