1. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
1. What is the purpose of this study?
An analysis of the typology of dictionaries will be done to determine which type of dictionary will best match the needs of the different target user groups. This study will not be limited to one single type of dictionary, but will consider different types of dictionaries, which will enable the target users to retrieve the information successfully.
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2. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
2. 九种不同的分类标准
in《双语词典编撰》by 李明 周敬华
按内容分类：
语文词典、百科词典、专科词典
按收词范围和所提供的词汇信息分类：
综合语文词典、专科词典
按所涉及的语种分类：
单语词典、双语词典、多语词典
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3. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
按收词的历史阶段分类：
历时词典(diachronic dictionaries)
共时词典(synchronic dictionaries)
按词典规模分类：
足本词典（unabridged dictionary）
案头词典（desk dictionary）
袖珍词典（pocket dictionary）
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4. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
按服务对象分类：
　　为外国人编的词典、为本国人编的词典
按主要功能分类：
　　主动型词典、被动型词典
前苏联著名词典学家谢尔巴认为：“应当明确区分以下两种词典：旨在帮助本国人把文章译成外语的词典和用来帮助理解外语文章的词典。”（转引自Snell-Hornby, 1987:162）
按词目的排列顺序分类：
　　字顺词典、分类词典
按载体分类：
　　纸质词典、电子词典
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5. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
3. Previous dictionary typologies:
Scherba (1940, Russian linguist) proposed a classification based on the structural characteristics of possible dictionary types. He used a series of six contrasts between these types:
1) A normative dictionary, which dictates norms vs. a reference dictionary which adopts a descriptive approach.
2) An encyclopedia vs. a dictionary; the contrast here is based on the function of proper names in a language, which should not be excluded from the dictionary because they are part of the language.
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6. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
3) An ordinary dictionary (such as a defining dictionary or translating dictionary) vs. a general concordance in which all the words are listed along with all the quotations that can be found in texts, as is the case in a concordance of a dead language.
4) A dictionary (such as a defining dictionary or a translating dictionary) vs. an ‘ideological’ dictionary, which groups ideas or subjects (such as Roget’s Thesaurus).
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7. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
5) A defining dictionary (e.g. monolingual dictionary) vs. a translating dictionary (such as bilingual or multilingual dictionary).
6) An historical dictionary vs. a non-historical dictionary.
For Scherba, the purpose of an historical dictionary is “to give all the meanings of all the words that belong, and have belonged, to a given national language during all its existence”.
The results from this attempt show a great overlapping between the various types.
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8. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Malkiel (1962) proposes a typology based on three main features: (i) range, (ii) perspective and (iii) presentation.
(i) Classification by range
With regard to range, dictionaries are divided by:
the density of articles, which may be measured by the breadth of coverage (how much of the total lexicon of the language is covered) and by the depth of coverage (how many senses are listed under each lemma; are contextual connotations and idioms covered);
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9. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
the number of languages involved, according to which there are mono, bi-, tri-, quadric- and pluri- or multilingual dictionaries; and
the extent of concentration on lexical data. Malkiel distinguishes encyclopedic data by the inclusion of proper names and by a prodigality of comments, which are more than a sober definition needs.
Range distinguishes between dictionaries according to the number of lemmas, the number of languages used and the percentage of exclusively linguistic information.
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10. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
(ii) Classification by perspective
Dictionaries can be classified according to
(a) the fundamental dimension: the dictionary is either synchronic or diachronic;
(b) three contrasting patterns of arrangements: alphabetic, semantic or casual (non-systematic); and
(c) three contrasting levels of tone: the tone of the dictionary may be detached (reporting facts objectively), prescriptive (normative and didactic) or facetious.
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11. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Perspective differentiates historical dictionaries and synchronic dictionaries.
Historical dictionaries describe the evolution of the language over a certain period of time: they contain obsolete words and archaic words, as well as information on the history of every lemma.
Synchronic dictionaries only describe the language as it is used at a given period, usually the present.
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12. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Malkiel also distinguishes between prescriptive and descriptive dictionaries. For him a dictionary can be detached, prescriptive, or facetious, though facetiousness is hardly compatible with modern lexicography.
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13. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
(iii) Classification by presentation
Here dictionaries are classified in the light of their
(a) definitions,
(b) exemplifications,
(c) graphic illustrations (including maps), and
(d) special features (localization in territorial terms on the social scale).
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14. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Presentation, in Malkiel’s typology, is a measure of the precision of the definitions, the nature of the examples, the presence of the pictures and certain pieces of information, such as phonetic transcription and usage labels.
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15. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Many other authors have presented a dictionary typology. Some have based them on the type of linguistic approach used by the lexicographer.
Bejoint (2000:35) cites Guilbert (1969), who distinguishes five types of dictionaries:
the encyclopedia,
the scientific and technical dictionary,
the ‘linguistic’ and encyclopedic dictionary,
the Dictionnaires de langue (no equivalent in English) and
the linguistic-type dictionary.
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16. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Quemada (1968) also made a typology mainly based on specialized language dictionaries, such as
dictionary of proverbs,
dictionary of roots,
dictionary of verbs,
dictionary of synonyms, pronunciation and the like.
Rey (1967) proposes his ‘genetic’ typology, based on the more or less chronological choices that lexicographers have to make when designing and compiling a dictionary (cf. Bejoint 2000).
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17. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Al-Kasimi (1977) proposes his typology of bilingual dictionaries. He states that the new typology is an aid to lexicographers in order to help them understand linguistic theoretical solutions. It is also meant to guide the user in choosing and selecting the dictionary that satisfies his/her needs.
Al-Kasimi presents in his typology of bilingual dictionaries three criteria: source, scope and purpose.
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18. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
His scope is linguists’ views on lexicography and their criticisms of the existing dictionaries. Then the discussion is limited to bilingual dictionaries and finally the purpose is “ to assist the lexicographer in digesting linguistic theories to produce better bilingual dictionaries”. This classification is based on seven contrasts:
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19. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Dictionaries for the speakers of the source language vs. dictionaries for the speakers of the target language.
Dictionaries of the literary language vs. dictionaries of the spoken language.
Dictionaries for production vs. dictionaries for comprehension.
Dictionaries for human users vs. dictionaries for machine translation.
Historical dictionaries vs. descriptive dictionaries.
Lexical dictionaries vs. encyclopedic dictionaries.
General dictionaries vs. special dictionaries.
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20. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Many researchers over the years have attempted to classify dictionaries in a clear typology and have reached mainly the same conclusion; the task is difficult if not impossible because the concept is too imprecise. Most of all, the structural characteristics that compose dictionaries overlap from one type to another.
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21. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
Why is a typological classification of dictionaries needed?
First, a proper typology will contribute to the establishment of lexicography as an academic discipline.
Second, a proper typology will locate dictionaries of different types in their right positions so that special attention will be devoted to those distinctive features of an individual type which single it out from other types.
Third, a proper typology will help clarify the lexicographic functions each type of dictionary is supposed to fulfill.
Finally, a proper typology will benefit linguists, publishers, users and the librarians.
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22. 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries
A sound typology for dictionaries should meet the following criteria:
1) It should be open-ended.
2) It should consider the compilers’ perspectives the dictionary itself and the users’ expectations within a unified framework.
3) It should highlight those distinctive characteristics which distinguish one dictionary type from another.
4) It should avoid too much overlapping between dictionary types.
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