1. Dynamics V: response of the ocean to wind (Langmuir circulation, mixed layer, Ekman layer) L. Talley Fall, 2014 Surface mixed layer - Langmuir circulation and turbulently mixed layers Rotation and friction: Ekman layers Ekman layer convergence: upwelling and downwelling READING: –DPO: Chapter 7.5 –Stewart chapter 9.2,9.3, 9.5 (other sections are useful for those seeking more dynamics Talley SIO 210 (2014)

2. Effect of wind on the ocean First effect is to create wind waves, short period up through longer period swell These actually transmit the wind stress to the ocean. (Hendershott lectures) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

3. Surface layer - small scale response, but bigger than surface waves: Langmuir circulation Wind rows at sea surface (DPO Fig. S7.9) Horizontal scale: 10-50 m Vertical scale: 4-6 m Cartoon from Smith and Pinkel (2003) (DPO Fig. S7.10) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

4. Ocean response to wind Inertial effects: already described previously (Dynamics – Rotation) Langmuir, inertial effects, turbulence from wave breaking, air-sea buoyancy loss all contribute to turbulence and mixing in the surface layer… Talley SIO 210 (2014)

5. Surface mixed layer: buoyancy and turbulent mixing effects Mixing by turbulence only Mixing by heat loss Development of mixed layer depends on turbulence input (wind velocity), heat loss or gain (also salt), and pre-existing stratification DPO Fig. 7.3 Talley SIO 210 (2014)

6. Surface mixed layer: maximum mixed layer depth See also Lecture: Ocean Structure I DPO Fig. 4.4c from Holte et al al. Talley SIO 210 (2014)

7. How does the ocean respond to wind stress at time scales longer than hours? Talley SIO 210 (2014)

8. Ekman velocity spiral Surface velocity to the right of the wind (northern hemisphere, due to Coriolis) Surface layer pushes next layer down slightly the right, and slightly weaker current Next layer pushes next layer, slightly to right and slightly weaker current Producing a “spiral” of the current vectors, to right in northern hemisphere, decreasing speed with increasing depth Details of the spiral depend on the vertical viscosity (how frictional the flow is, and also whether “friction” depends on depth) Vertical scale: about 50 meters Talley SIO 210 (2014)

9. Equations of motion and frictional balance in an Ekman layer Three APPROXIMATE equations: Horizontal (x) (west-east) Coriolis = vertical viscosity Horizontal (y) (south-north) Coriolis = vertical viscosity Vertical (z) (down-up) (hydrostatic balance) 0 = pressure gradient force + effective gravity NOTE: NO HORIZONTAL PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE OR ACCELERATION in an Ekman layer That is: x: -fv =  /  z(A V  u/  z) y: fu =  /  z(A V  v/  z) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

10. Ekman transport The wind stress on the ocean surface is the vector  = (  (x),  (y) ) Integrate the Coriolis/friction balances in the vertical x: -fv = /z(A V u/z) -> -fV EK = A V u/z =  (x) / y: fu = /z(A V v/z) -> fU EK = A V v/z =  (y) / U EK and V EK are the “Ekman transport” ∫udz, ∫vdz Ekman “transport” is exactly to the right of the wind stress (northern hemisphere ) (to left of wind stress in southern hemisphere since f has the opposite sign). Ekman transport does not depend on the size or structure of A V (but the detailed structure of the spiral DOES depend on it) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

11. Ekman layer “transport” “Transport”: 90° to wind, to right in NH and left in SH U Ek =  /  f (units are m 2 /s, not m 3 /s so technically this is not a transport; need to sum horizontally along a section to get a transport). Typical size: for wind stress 0.1 N/m 2, U Ek = 1 m 2 /s. Integrate over width of ocean, say 5000 km, get total transport of 5 x 10 6 m 3 /sec = 5 Sv. Talley SIO 210 (2014)

12. Ekman layer depth Depth: depends on eddy viscosity A V (why?) D ek = (2A V /f) 1/2 Eddy viscosity A V is about 0.05 m 2 /sec in turbulent surface layer, so Ekman layer depth is 20 to 60 m for latitudes 80° to 10°. Talley SIO 210 (2014)

13. Ekman layer velocity Velocity: spirals with depths and magnitude depends on eddy viscosity (why?) If A V is constant, surface velocity is 45° to wind For eddy viscosity 0.05 m 2 /sec, and wind stress of 1 dyne/cm 2 (.1 N/m 2 ), surface velocity is 3 cm/sec at 45°N. Talley SIO 210 (2014)

14. Observations of Ekman layer Direct current measurements in California Current region revealed excellent Ekman- type spiral (Chereskin, JGR, 1995) DPO Fig. 7.7 Talley SIO 210 (2014)

15. Global surface wind velocity Talley SIO 210 (2014)

16. Basinwide demonstration of Ekman balance using surface drifters (Ralph and Niiler, 1999) Blue - average wind Red - average 15 meter current DPO Fig. 7.8 Talley SIO 210 (2014)

17. Ekman divergence (Ekman upwelling) at equator and at land boundaries DPO Fig. 7.6 Equatorial Land boundary (northern hemisphere, like California) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

18. Ekman transport convergence and divergence DPO Fig. S7.12 Talley SIO 210 (2014)

19. Wind stress curl and Ekman pumping Ekman transport: if it is convergent, then there is downwelling out of the bottom of the Ekman layer. 1. Wind stress creates Ekman transport to the right (NH). x: -fV EK =  (x) / y: fU EK =  (y) / 2. Ekman transport convergence causes downwelling (U EK /x + V EK /y) + (0-w EK ) = 0 so w EK = /x( (y) /f) - /y( (x) /f) = If wind stress curl is positive (NH), Ekman upwelling If wind stress curl is negative (NH), Ekman downwelling Talley SIO 210 (2014)

20. Ekman transport convergence and divergence Vertical velocity at base of Ekman layer: order (10 -4 cm/sec) (Compare with typical horizontal velocities of 1-10 cm/sec) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

21. Global surface wind velocity Talley SIO 210 (2014)

22. Global surface wind stress curl DPO Fig. 5.16d Wind stress curl (related to Ekman transport convergence and divergence) (Chelton et al., 2004) NH: Red = upwelling Blue = downwelling SH: Red = downwelling Blue = upwelling Talley SIO 210 (2014)

23. Ekman pumping for the Pacific Ekman transport convergence = downwelling = “Ekman pumping” Ekman transport divergence = upwelling = “Ekman suction” DPO Fig. S5.10 Blue regions: Ekman pumping (wind curl is negative in northern hemisphere and positive in southern hemisphere, leading to Ekman convergence) Yellow-red regions: Ekman upwelling (vice versa) Talley SIO 210 (2014)

24. Evidence of Ekman upwelling: surface nitrate concentration Data from gridded climatology, NODC (Levitus and Boyer, 1994) DPO Fig. 4.23 Talley SIO 210 (2014)

25. NASA Talley SIO 210 (2014)