1. ARGUMENT

2. DEFINITION OF ARGUMENT  the presentation and defense or support of a specific thesis, assertion, or claim  can be  a strongly held belief  a critical view of an issue  a presentation of an insight  a search for the truth  a description  To convince the reader to accept the position, the writer provides support using objective facts or logical evidence, and sometimes, even emotional appeals.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION  The goal of argument is to have you accept the writer’s thesis.  The goal of persuasion, after you’ve accepted the position of the writer, is to have you get moving and do something.  EXAMPLES:  ARGUMENT: Walking is necessary for good health.  PERSUASION: I want you to walk every day for good health.

4. ARGUMENT QUESTION FORMAT  Most often, the exam will give you a prompt that might be:  a brief excerpt  a quotation  a statement  an anecdote  You will be directed to defend (agree with), challenge (disagree with), or qualify (agree with some and disagree with other parts of the text) the:  author’s position  statement’s main idea  narrative’s main point.

5.  Other types of argumentative prompts may ask you to:  write an essay indicating which idea among a given set is more valid  explore the validity of an assertion.  No matter which type of prompt is given, you should be able to:  take a position on the issue or situation  support your position using your own experience, reading, and/or observations

6. CLASSICAL ARGUMENT FORMULA  Present the issue/situation/problem.  State your (writer’s) assertion/claim/thesis.  Support your claim.  Your support should be rational and logical, not emotional.  It should be objective rather than biased (one-sided).  It can be developed using any of the rhetorical strategies and devices.  Acknowledge and respond to real or possible opposing views.  Make your final comment or summary of the evidence.

7.  The order of your presentation can be varied.  Any rhetorical strategies can be employed.  Make certain that your support/evidence is appropriate and effective.

8. TYPES OF ARGUMENTATIVE APPEALS YOU CAN USE  Ethical (Ethos)  an appeal to the reader’s good sense, goodwill, and desire to “do the right thing”  Emotional (Pathos)  an appeal to the reader’s fear, patriotism, and so forth  Logical (Logos)  an appeal to inductive and deductive reasoning

9. INDUCTION  forming a generalization from a set of specific examples  moves from a given series of specifics to a generalization  Example: Margo has 17 stuffed teddy bears, 3 stuffed cows, 11 monkeys, 4 camels, and 6 stuffed elephants. Margo loves to collect stuffed animals.  possible problems  The generalization covers many unobserved persons, objects, etc.  If the conclusion begins with ALL, any exception would invalidate the generalization.  Cited facts are incorrect.  Assumed connections are incorrect.  Assumption is a conclusion NOT supported by the evidence.

10. DEDUCTION  reaching a probable conclusion based on given premises  A premise is a proposition that is taken for granted.  EXAMPLE: All high school seniors at this high school must write a research paper. Sean is a senior at this high school. Therefore, Sean must write a research paper.  The process moves from a general rule to a specific example.  Conclusions can be drawn from implicit premises, such as:  universal truths  possibilities that the reader will readily accept  familiar sayings  facts that everyone, including the reader, knows  Deduction uses the syllogism.

11. SYLLOGISM  A syllogism is the format of a formal argument that consists of a  major premise  Examples:  All A are C.  All lions are cats.  minor premise  Examples:  B is A.  Leonard is a lion.  conclusion  Examples:  Therefore, B is C.  Therefore, Leonard is a cat.

12. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH DEDUCTION  Not all of the given A falls into the given B category. There are exceptions.  The given category B is incorrect.  The second statement is not true or is incorrect. Therefore, the conclusion is invalid.  The truth of the third statement is in question.  A logical fallacy has occurred.

13. LOGICAL FALLACIES  Non sequitur argument  means “does not follow” in Latin  conclusion does not follow from the premise  Ex.: Diane graduated from Vassar. She’ll make a great lawyer.  Begging the question  The writer assumes in his/her assertion/premise/thesis something that really remains to be proved.  Ex.: Taking geometry is a waste of time. High school students should not be required to take this course.  Circular reasoning  restates the premise rather than giving a reason for holding the premise.  Ex.: I like to eat because I enjoy different foods and restaurants.

14.  Straw-man argument  The speaker/writer attributes false or exaggerated characteristics or behaviors to the opponent and attacks him on those falsehoods or exaggerations.  Ex.: You say you support allowing people under eighteen to drive alone. I’ll never be able to understand why weak-willed drivers like you are willing to risk your life and the lives of all other drivers with these crazy teenagers on the road.  Ad hominem argument  means to “argue against the man”  attacks the person rather than dealing with the issue under discussion  Ex.: We all know Sam has several speeding tickets on his record. How can we trust him to vote for us on the issue of a trade agreement with Europe?  Hasty generalization  draws a conclusion about an entire group based on evidence that is too scant or insufficient  Ex.: The veterinarian discovered a viral infection in five beagles. All beagles must be infected with it.

15.  Overgeneralization  The writer/speaker draws a conclusion about a large number of people, ideas, things, etc. based on very limited evidence.  Also known as a stereotype.  Words such as all, never, always, and every are usually indicative of overgeneralization.  Look for qualifiers (some, seem, often, perhaps, frequently, etc.) that indicate the writer has awareness of the complexities of the topic or group under discussion.  Post hoc argument  Cites an unrelated event that occurred earlier as the cause of the current situation.  Ex.: I saw a black cat run across the street in front of my car five minutes before I was hit by a foul ball at the park. Therefore, the black cat is the cause of my bruised arm.  Either/or argument  The writer asserts that there are only two possibilities, when, in reality, there are more.  Ex.: Tomorrow is April 15; therefore, I must mail in my tax return, or I will be arrested.

16. ANALOGY  an argument based on similarities  Possible Problems:  Accepting the totality of the analogy by never questioning that there are differences between/among the items being compared that could invalidate the argument or conclusion.  Exaggerating the similarities.