1. Thermodynamics “the branch of science that deals with energy levels and the transfer of energy between systems and between different states of matter”

2. What is Energy??? “It is important to realize that in physics today, we have no knowledge of what energy is. We do not have a picture that energy comes in little blobs of a definite amount. It is not that way.” –Richard Feynman HOWEVER  Feynman goes on to elaborate that energy has meaning as a way to define, and quantify, changes which bring about reactions – between systems, energy levels, or states of matter. “How seriously must we take the physical existence of this energy? No more and no less than any other bookkeeping practices.” –Richard Feynman

3. Thermodynamics Thermodynamics answers the following question: For any reaction - defined by a set of reactants and products set in exactly defined conditions (temperature, pressure, concentration, etc.)  will that reaction go forward spontaneously or not?? For ANY geochemical reaction, if thermo says NO, rest assured the reaction will not proceed. Thermo says NOTHING about the speed a reaction occurs!!

4. Equilibrium Anything at equilibrium is theoretically undergoing forward and reverse reactions: A + B ↔ C –A + B  C AND C  A +B Equilibrium has 2 criteria: –Reaction does not appreciably change in time –Perturbation of that equilibrium will result in a return to the equilibrium

5. log K eq CaCO 3(calcite) = Ca 2+ + CO 3 2- -8.48 CO 2(g) + H 2 O = H 2 CO 3 0 -1.47 H 2 CO 3 0 = H + + HCO 3 - -6.35 H + + CO 3 2- = HCO 3 - +10.33 CaCO 3(calcite) + CO 2(g) + H 2 O = Ca 2+ + 2 HCO 3 - -5.97 Equations can be ‘added’ together, equilibrium constants also get ‘added’ together! Convenient way to rewrite reactions (to look at more appropriate reactions or to use things you’ve more directly measured….)

6. Assessing equilibrium Q  reaction quotient, aka Ion Activity Product (IAP) is calculated from knowing activity of all components of a reaction K  aka K eq, we get from thermodynamic data – it is one number defined AT EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium for any reaction is when Q = K

7. Where do K’s come from? Measure directly – experimental determination of conditions at equilibrium Use thermodynamic data – K is directly related to free energy of reaction –  G R

8. Hydroxylapatite Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 (OH) = OH - + 3 PO 4 3- + 5 Ca 2+ Log K = -59.0351 at 25ºC

9. Aqueous Complexes Combinations of ions to form dimers, trimers, etc., are complexes Why do we care?? 1.Complexation of an ion also occurring in a mineral increases solubility 2.Some elements occur as complexes more commonly than as free ions 3.Adsorption of elements greatly determined by the complex it resides in 4.Toxicity/ bioavailability of elements depends on the complexation

10. How do we know about all those species?? Based on complexation  how any ion interacts with another ion to form a molecule, or complex (many of these are still in solution) Yet we do not measure how much CaNO 3 +, CaF +, or CaPO 4 - there is in a particular water sample We measure Ca 2+  But is that Ca 2+ really how the Ca exists in a water??

11. Defining Complexes Use equilibrium expressions: cC + lHL  CL + lH+ Where B is just like K eq !

12. Equilibrium Equilibrium Constant, K (or K eq ) describes conditions AT equilibrium (where  G R =0)  G R  -  G 0 R = RTlnK  G 0 R = -RTlnK  G 0 R =  G 0 R products –  G 0 R reactants  G R =  G R products –  G R reactants

13. G0G0 Energy at STANDARD STATE = 25°C, 1 bar Pressure, 1 molal concentration for each

14. Speciation Any element exists in a solution, solid, or gas as 1 to n ions, molecules, or solids Example: Ca 2+ can exist in solution as: Ca ++ CaCl + CaNO 3 + Ca(H 3 SiO 4 ) 2 CaF + CaOH + Ca(O-phth) CaH 2 SiO 4 CaPO 4 - CaB(OH) 4 + CaH 3 SiO 4 + CaSO 4 CaCH 3 COO + CaHCO 3 + CaHPO 4 0 CaCO 3 0 Plus more species  gases and minerals!!

15. Mass Action & Mass Balance mCa 2+ =mCa 2+ +MCaCl + + mCaCl 2 0 + CaCL 3 - + CaHCO 3 + + CaCO 3 0 + CaF + + CaSO 4 0 + CaHSO 4 + + CaOH + +… Final equation to solve the problem sees the mass action for each complex substituted into the mass balance equation

16. Mineral dissolution/precipitation To determine whether or not a water is saturated with hydroxyapatite, we could write a dissolution reaction such as: Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 (OH) = OH - + 3 PO 4 3- + 5 Ca 2+ We could then determine the equilibrium constant: If K = -59.04, can determine how much Ca 2+ and PO 4 3- might dissolve at any pH and T

17. Activity Sometimes called ‘effective concentration’, which is misleading and reflects a poor understanding of the property… Think of more of the effect the rest of a solution has on how easily two ions come together..

18. Activity For solids or liquid solutions: a i =X i  i For gases: a i =P i  i = f i For aqueous solutions: a i =m i  i X i =mole fraction of component i P i = partial pressure of component i m i = molal concentration of component i

19. Activity Coefficients Where do they come from?? The standard state for dissolved ions is actually an infinitely dilute solution… Activity of phases - gases, minerals, and bulk liquids (H 2 O) are usually pretty close to 1 in waters Dissolved molecules/ ions have activity coefficients that change with concentration (ions are curved lines relating concentration and activity coefficients, molecules usually more linear relation)

20. Application to ions in solution Ions in solutions are obviously nonideal mixtures! a i =  i m i The activity coefficient,  i, is found via some empirical foundations Dependent on the other ions in water…

21. Dissolved species  i First must define the ionic strength (I) of the solution the ion is in: Where m i is the molar concentration of species i and z i is the charge of species I

22. Activity Coefficients Debye-Huckel approximation (valid for I: Where A and B are constants (depending on T), z is charge, I is ionic strength, and å is a measure of the effective diameter of the ion

23. Different ways to calculate  i Limiting law Debye-Huckel Davies TJ, SIT models Pitzer, HKW models

24. Neutral species Setchnow equation: Log  n =k s I For activity coefficient (see table 4-2 for selected coefficients)

25. Mass Action & Mass Balance mCa 2+ =mCa 2+ +MCaCl + + mCaCl 2 0 + CaCL 3 - + CaHCO 3 + + CaCO 3 0 + CaF + + CaSO 4 0 + CaHSO 4 + + CaOH + +… Final equation to solve the problem sees the mass action for each complex substituted into the mass balance equation Equations for each ion – iterative solution…

26. Speciation Models PHREEQC, or WebPHREEQ, is a USGS program that solves, simultaneously (iteratively really), all of the mass action and mass balance equations for a water’s chemical composition