1. Connecting second language acquisition theory and Accelerated Literacy pedagogy Rhonda Oliver & Kate Mullin

2. The National Accelerated Literacy Program (NALP) operates in an ESL or ESD medium across Australia (Gray and Cowey) It targets Indigenous students with low levels of English language literacy It operates successfully across a spectrum of settings ie Data collected from participating schools show that it can significantly raise the literacy levels of even the lowest performing student

3. Connection to SLA The Accelerated Literacy (AL) program makes no explicit reference to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories This is despite the fact it is primarily used to teach students who speak either a traditional Aboriginal language as their first language, or a variety of English that is not Standard Australian English (SAE)

4. SLA theories Theories are used to explain the learning of second language or dialect SLA draws inspiration from a number of academic disciplines including psychology, linguistics and language education Like other social sciences the theories of SLA can be represented along the ‘nature versus nurture’ continuum

5. SLA theoretical perspectives Behaviourism Nativism Interactionism- cognitive - social

6. Implications for pedagogy Nativists – provision of abundant comprehensible input (e.g., early immersion programs, literacy ‘language bath’, communicative approach) Interactionists – input + interaction + opportunities for comprehensible output + focus on form (with attention/noticing) + feedback

7. Mapping So what is the connection between AL and SLA? The following represents a mapping of SLA theories onto the different stages of the AL teaching sequence

8. Transformations Literate orientation Spelling Writing

9. Literate Orientation: a foundation for successful reading Low Order Shows the possibilities for enjoyment of this text. Establishes literate mindsets in students as teachers ‘loan their consciousness’ about what it means. High Order Examination of the actual language choices that create the meaning in a text. High Order Low Order

10. Mapping low order literate orientation onto SLA theory In this stage students are given a ‘literate reading’ of the text (ie input from the teacher) The teacher directs the attention of the students to a particular way of ‘thinking, valuing, talking’ (Gee, 1996) the text (ie further meaningful input) This may involve teachers briefly introducing structural features and discussing such things as characters’ motivations, the author’s ideology and, highlighting meanings embedded in pictures (ie continuing the development of comprehensible input, but with a focus on the form that students notice) Thus this stage is all about getting meaning from the written text as comprehension is seen as critical to both student engagement and participation

11. Schmidt, Van Lier and others insist that to learn something new (in the context of language learning) one first must notice it: Paying attention is focusing one’s consciousness, or pointing one’s perceptual powers in the right direction, and making mental energy available for processing. Perceiving involves linking something that is perceived on the outside world to structures that exist in the mind. (van Lier,1996, p. 11)

12. Mapping high order literate orientation onto SLA theory In this stage students are directed to pay attention to significant words or groups of words as identified by the teacher Once students locate and identify these words, the teacher can then provide further input In this stage there is greater opportunities for interaction than the previous stage through the use of a particular questioning cycle - preformulation (ie the teacher cues the students to ‘notice’ lexical form with a series of directional, wh- or paraphrase cues) In this stage students are also required to produce comprehensible output (Swain 1995, 2000) – to which the teacher interactively responds and this is used to build a ‘common knowledge’ in the classroom It is important to note that through this interaction elaborated (rather than reduced) input is provided

13. …this result is especially important because most current methods of simplifying input, especially readability formulae and structural grading applies to written ESL materials, concentrating on facilitating comprehension by shortening sentences and removing embedded clauses. This procedure, while intuitively appealing…, may actually impede rather than aid understanding. (Pica, Young, and Doughty,1987, p. 750)

14. Learner ‘internal’ factors Although students are not asked to predict, and generally do not have questions directed at them unless the teacher is sure they know the answer (as often occurs in mainstream reading lessons) they are encouraged to interact when teachers ponder and think aloud as they are apt to do Scaffolding of the learners’ language production means that learners are supported interactively with their production (ie output) and as such are able to avoid explicit correction from teachers which, in turn, reduces learner stress Like Krashen before them, Gray and Cowey believe that learning will only happen when student stress levels are low (ie when the ‘affective filter’ is low - Krashen, 1983) and when motivation is high

15. The final stages As the students progress through the final stages of AL (spelling and writing) there are greater opportunities not only for focus of form (and directed noticing), but.enhanced opportunities for comprehensible output and interaction The building of classroom common equates to collective and collaborative forces in which language is used as a tool to mediate and enhance learning

16. Conclusion There is not a convenient one-to-one relationship, the AL teaching sequence, in different stages, embraces a number of SLA theoretical positions …

17. Mapping AL onto SLA: Movement along the continuum Nativism → cognitive interactionism → social interactionism AL begins with a focus on meaningful input As students develop, interaction becomes more important e.g., When there is incomprehension teachers will negotiate meaning with their students; there is a focus on form to enhance focussed attention and noticing; and opportunities for meaningful interaction There is recycling, or scaffolding in the middle and latter stages, and in the final stages language is used to mediate and enhance learning

18. Thank you Rhonda Oliver rhonda.oliver@ecu.edu.au This talk is dedicated to the memory of Kate Mullin