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Seafood Safety and Natural Marine Toxins

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1 Seafood Safety and Natural Marine Toxins
Robert J. Price Food Science & Technology Sea Grant Extension Program UC Davis

2 Major Causes of Seafood-borne Illness
Live molluscan shellfish Vibrio species Norwalk-like viruses Natural marine toxins Scombroid fish poisoning Ciguatera fish poisoning Live molluscan shellfish continue to be a major cause of seafood-borne illness.

3 Estimated Cases Per Year
Norwalk-like virus 100,000 Scombroid fish poisoning 8,000 Ciguatera fish poisoning 1,600 Vibrio species 1,060 Hepatitis A 1,000 Salmonella 200 Shigella 200 Clostridium perfringens 200 Includes recreational and subsistence fishing (not common for other protein sources)

4 Natural Marine Toxins Scombroid fish poisoning (histamine)
Ciguatera fish poisoning Shellfish toxins (ASP, DSP, NSP, PSP) Tetrodotoxin Gempylotoxin Pfiesteria

5 Scombroid Fish Poisoning
Named for the family Scomberidae (tunas and mackerels) Can involve any fish containing high levels of free histidine Bacteria break down free histidine into histamine

6 Histamine Formation Histamine itself is often nontoxic
Histamine is a useful marker for fish that could cause scombroid fish poisoning. Histamine is heat stable and not destroyed by cooking or canning

7 H2N–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–NH2
Diamines Cadaverine H2N–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–NH2 Putrescine H2N–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–NH2 The actual mechanism of poisoning must depend on additional cofactors, possible diamines such as cadaverive and putrescene

8 Scombroid Fish Poisoning
Source: improperly handled (time/temperature abuse) mahi mahi, tuna, bluefish, sardines, mackerel Range: worldwide Source: improperly handled (time/temperature abuse) mahi mahi, tuna, bluefish, sardines, mackerel Range: worldwide

9 Scombroid Fish Poisoning
Onset: immediate to 30 minutes Initial symptoms: tingling or burning sensation in the mouth, rash on the upper body, drop in blood pressure, headache, itching of the skin Later symptoms: nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea Duration: 3 hours to several days Onset: immediate to 30 minutes Initial symptoms: tingling or burning sensation in the mouth, rash on the upper body, drop in blood pressure, headache, itching of the skin Later symptoms: nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea Duration: 3 hours to several days

10 Scombroid Fish Poisoning
Treatment: antihistamines Control: proper chilling and temperature control FDA guideline: 50 ppm Treatment: Antihistamines Control: proper chilling and temperature control after capture FDA guideline: 50 ppm histamine in raw, frozen tuna and mahi mahi; Canned tuna; and related species

11 Scombrotoxin Outbreaks
: >200 cases (imported mahi mahi) 1986: 10 cases (Pacific yellowtail) 1988: 9 cases (yellowfin tuna) 1988: 8 cases (mahi mahi) 1998: 4 cases (yellowfin tuna) 2000: 21 cases in California (escolar) : >200 cases (imported mahi mahi) 1986: Three restaurants in Alabama and Tennessee. Nine customers and one employee ate Pacific amberjack fish (yellowtail or kahala). Onset minutes. Facial rash, body rash, headache, oral paresthesias, shortness of breath, vomiting. Duration 3-36 hours (median 14 hours) mg% histamine in fish sampled by FDA 1987: Albuquerque, New Mexico. Mahi-mahi. Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, fever, flushing, rapid pulse rate. Duration: 36 hours. Fish contained 20 mg% histamine. 1989: 9 cases, South Carolina. Yellowfin tuna. Onset 38 minutes. Symptome: flushing, dairrhea, headache, fever, nausea, rapid pulse, pruitus, dizziness, vomiting. Duration: 6 hours. Fish contained mg% histamine. 1989: Illinois. Mahi mahi. Onset: 90 minutes. Symptoms: headache, nausea, flushing, dizziness, diarrhea. Fish contained mg% histamine. 1998: Pennsylvania. 4 cases from tuna-spinach salad (yellowfin tuna). Onset 5 minutes to 2 hours 2000: 21 cases in California (Escolar)

12 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
Four toxins: structure not determined Source: certain species of fish feeding on several algae species including Gambierdiscus Range: Tropical and subtropical waters worldwide U.S.: East coast, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Virgin Islands Toxins: heat stable Four toxins: structure not determined Source: certain species of tropical and subtropical fish feeding on several algae species including Gambierdiscus Range: Tropical and subtropical waters worldwide U.S.: East coast, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Virgin Islands Toxins: heat stable

13 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
Onset: <6 hours Symptoms: Gastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Neurological: numbness and tingling around mouth, joint pain, muscle ache, headache, temperature sensory reversal Cardiovascular: arrhythmia, bradycardia, tachycardia, reduced blood pressure Onset: <6 hours Symptoms: Gastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Neurological: perioral (around the mouth) numbness and tingling, arthralgia (joint pain), myalgia (muscle ache), headache, temperature sensory reversal, acute sensitivity to temperature extremes, vertigo (dizziness), and muscular weakness to the point of prostration Cardiovascular: arrhythmia (irregular heart reat), bradycardia (slow heart rate), tachycardia (rapid heart rate), reduced blood pressure

14 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
Duration: Usually self-limiting within several days Rarely some neurological symptoms may persist for months or years Treatment: Treat symptoms Duration: Usually self-limiting within several days Rarely some neurological symptoms may persist for months or years Treatment: Treat symptoms

15 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
Control: Mouse bioassay “Cigua-check” test kit available Enzyme immunoassay under evaluation Obtain fish from safe harvest areas Commonly implicated species: Groupers, barracudas, snappers, jacks, mackerel, and triggerfish FDA guideline: no guideline Control: Mouse bioassay “Cigua-check” test kit available Enzyme immunoassay under evaluation Obtain fish from safe harvest areas Commonly implicated species: Groupers, barracudas, snappers, jacks, mackerel, and triggerfish FDA guideline: no guideline

16 Ciguatera Outbreaks 1981: Puerto Rico, 49 cases, 2 deaths (barracuda, amberjack, blackjack) 1987: Caribbean, 57 cases (fish casserole) 1988: Florida, >100 cases (hogfish) 1992: California, 25 cases (flag cabrilla) 1994: California, several cases (yellowtail) 1995: Guam (sea weed?) 1981: Puerto Rico, 49 cases, 2 deaths (barracuda, amberjack, blackjack) 1987: Caribbean, 57 cases (fish casserole) 1988: Florida, >100 cases (hogfish) 1992: California, 25 cases (flag cabrilla) 1994: California, several cases (yellowtail) 1995: Guam (sea weed?)

17 Shellfish Toxins Amnesic shellfish poisoning
Diarrheic shellfish poisoning Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning Paralytic shellfish poisoning

18 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
Heterocyclic nitrogen compound, similar in structure to kainic acid and glutamate (exicitatory neurotransmitter) Identified in 1959 Heat stable

19 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
Source: Molluscan shellfish (mussels) feeding on algae (Pseudo-nitzschia spp.), viscera of Dungeness crab and anchovies Range: Northeast and northwest North America First reported in 1987 off Prince Edward Island, Canada Northeast and Gulf of Mexico Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia are present. Low levels have been detected in shellfish West Coast 3 species of Pseudo-nitzschia (not all produce toxin) First noticed in Pelicans and comorants dying in Monterey Bay with neurological symptoms. Tons of anchovy catches recalled or diverted. Identified in razor clams, Dungeness crab viscera, anchovies, blue mussels, viscera of tanner and red rock crab May and June 1998: sea lions along the southern and central California coast with strange and unusual behavior. July 1998: domoic acid in razor clams in both Oregon and Washington state. Clams ~300 ppm, may retain toxin at high levels for 6-12 months. Blooms are common in late summer and fall. Monitored along entire coast

20 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
Onset: Gastrointestinal symptoms within 24 hours Neurological symptoms within 48 hours Symptoms: Gastrointestinal: vomiting, diarrhea, vomiting Neurological: confusion, memory loss, disorientation, seizure coma Onset: Gastrointestinal symptoms within 24 hours Neurological symptoms within 48 hours Symptoms: Gastrointestinal: vomiting, diarrhea, vomiting Neurological: confusion, memory loss, disorientation, seizure coma

21 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
Duration: Self-limiting within several days Short-term memory loss can be permanent Control: HPLC laboratory procedure Obtain shellfish from approved waters Monitoring of coastal water and shellfish Duration: Self-limiting within several days Short-term memory loss can be permanent Control: HPLC laboratory procedure Obtain shellfish from approved waters Monitoring of coastal water and shellfish

22 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
FDA guideline: 20 ppm domoic acid in all fish 30 ppm domoic acid in viscera of Dungeness crab Outbreaks: 1987: Prince Edward Island, Canada 156 cases, 3 deaths, 12 with permanent short-term memory loss (mussels) 1991: Washington state 24 cases (razor clams) FDA guideline: 20 ppm domoic acid in all fish 30 ppm domoic acid in viscera of Dungeness crab Outbreaks: 1987: 156 cases, 3 deaths (mussels) 156 cases from cultured blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) harvested off Prince Edward Island. 22 people hospitalized; 3 elderly patients died. Some short-term memory loss 1991: 24 cases, not severe (razor clams) Annual problem on the west coast

23 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning
Okadaic acid and its derivatives Presumably caused by a group of high molecular weight polyethers, including okadaic acid, the dinophysis toxins, the pectenotoxins, and yessotoxin.

24 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning
Source: molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Dinophysis and Prorocentrum spp.) Range: Japan, southeast Asia, Scandinavia, western Europe, Chile, New Zealand, eastern Canada Toxins: heat stable Source: molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Dinophysis and Prorocentrum spp.) Range: Japan, southeast Asia, Scandinavia, western Europe, Chile, New Zealand, eastern Canada No cases reported in the U.S., but the organisms are present in U.S. waters May be widespread and under reported

25 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning
Onset: 30 minutes to 3 hours Symptoms: mild diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, chills, headache, fever Duration: 2-3 days with or without treatment Onset: 30 minutes to 3 hours Symptoms: mild diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, chills, headache, fever Duration: 2-3 days with or without treatment

26 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning
Control: Mouse bioassay HPLC procedure Molluscan shellfish from approved waters FDA guideline: 0.2 ppm okadaic acid plus 35-methyl okadaic acid (DXT 1) in all fish Control: Mouse bioassay HPLC procedure Molluscan shellfish from approved waters FDA guideline: 0.2 ppm okadaic acid plus 35-methyl okadaic acid (DXT 1) in all fish

27 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Polyether brevetoxins (6 toxins + 2 phosphorus containing toxins) Group of polyethers called brevetoxins.

28 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Source: molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Gymnodinium breve) Range: gulf of Mexico and southern Atlantic coast in U.S.; New Zealand Toxins: heat stable

29 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Onset: a few minutes to a few hours Symptoms: tingling and numbness of the lips, tongue, and throat, muscular aches, dizziness, cold hot sensation reversal, diarrhea, vomiting Duration: a few hours to several days Resembles mild ciguatera fish poisoning or PSP Blooms usually cause fish kills

30 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Control: Mouse bioassay HPLC Commercial immunoassay Obtain molluscan shellfish from approved waters FDA guideline: 0.8 ppm brevetoxin-2 equivalent (20 mouse units/100g) in clams, mussels and oysters Bioassay Probably not many cases in the U.S. per year

31 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Outbreaks: Sporadic and continuous along the gulf coast of Florida, North Carolina, and Texas

32 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Saxitoxins (12-20 analogs) Heterocyclic multi-ring nitrogen containing compounds Production by bacteria? (Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Moraxella spp.)

33 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Source: contaminated molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Alexandrium, Pyrodinium, Gymnodinium spp.) Range: tropical to temperate waters worldwide Worldwide in temperate areas Can cause death California quarantine from May 1 to October 31 Found in viscera of mackerel, lobster, Dungeness crab, tanner crab, red rock crab; eggs of horseshoe crab (Thailand)

34 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Onset: ½ to 2 hours Symptoms: tingling, burning, numbness, drowsiness, incoherent speech, respiratory paralysis Duration: respiratory support within 12 hours of exposure results in complete recovery Controls in California

35 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Control: Mouse bioassay Monitoring of coastal waters and shellfish Obtain molluscan shellfish from approved waters FDA guideline: 0.8 ppm saxitoxin equivalent (80μg/100g) in all fish

36 PSP Outbreaks 1976-89: 42 outbreaks in Alaska
1980: California, 98 cases, 2 deaths (oysters) 1990: Massachusetts, 6 cases (mussels) 1990: Alaska, 11 cases 1980: California, 98 cases, 2 deaths 1990: Massachusetts, 6 cases (blue mussels) 1990: Alaska, 11 cases, butter clams and mussels ( , 42 outbreaks in Alaska) Mean outbreak size = 8 persons

37 October 1999 Alexandrium catenella 1-10% Pseudo-nitzschia 1 = <10%, 3 = 10-50%

38 October 1999 Alert level = 80 ug/100g (0.8 ppm) 360 ug Kehoe Beach 390 ug Drakes Estero 440 ug Limantour Beach

39 Tetrodotoxin Produced by bacteria (Vibrio, Altermonas, Pseudomonas)

40 Tetrodotoxin Source: Gonads, liver, intestines, and skin of about 80 species of puffer fish, blowfish or fugu Also found in the California newt, parrotfish, frogs (Atelopus genus), blue-ringed octopus, starfish, octopus, and xanthid crabs

41 Tetrodotoxin Range: Primarily the Indo-Pacific Ocean
Other cases and deaths have occurred from puffer fish from the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf of California Range: Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans Onset: 20 minutes to 3 hours Initial symptoms: numbness of the lips and tongue Secondary symptoms: prickling of the face and extremities, a sensation of lightness or floating, headache, epigastric pain, nausea, diarrhea and/or vomiting Tertiary symptoms: increasing paralysis and death within 4-6 hours

42 Tetrodotoxin Onset: 20 minutes to 3 hours
Initial symptoms: numbness of the lips and tongue Secondary symptoms: prickling of the face and extremities, a sensation of lightness or floating, headache, epigastric pain, nausea, diarrhea and/or vomiting Tertiary symptoms: increasing paralysis and death within 4-6 hours Onset: 20 minutes to 3 hours Initial symptoms: numbness of the lips and tongue Secondary symptoms: prickling of the face and extremities, a sensation of lightness or floating, headache, epigastric pain, nausea, diarrhea and/or vomiting Tertiary symptoms: increasing paralysis and death within 4-6 hours (range 20 min. to 8 hours)

43 Tetrodotoxin Control: FDA guideline: Mouse bioassay HPLC method
Do not eat puffer fish or avoid improperly prepared pufferfish FDA guideline: Puffer fish may not be imported except under specific authorization from FDA Control: Mouse bioassay HPLC method Do not eat puffer fish or avoid improperly prepared pufferfish FDA guideline: Puffer fish may not be imported except under specific authorization from FDA One importer in New York City certified to import puffer fish (1999)

44 Tetrodotoxin Outbreaks
Japan: , 646 cases, 179 deaths persons per year mostly from home preparation and consumption Mortality about 50% California: 1996, 3 cases, no deaths Japan: , 646 cases, 179 deaths persons per year mostly from home preparation and consumption Mortality about 50% California: 1996, 3 cases, no deaths Illegally brought into country from Japan. Chef who brought fish didn’t eat any

45 Gempylotoxin Toxin: oil contained in the flesh and bones of specific species Source: Gemplids, escolars or pelagic mackerels (escolar; oilfish, castor oil fish or purgative fish; snek) Range: almost worldwide

46 Gempylotoxin Symptoms: diarrhea, generally without pain or cramping
Control: avoid specific fish species FDA guideline: escolar should not be imported Outbreaks: California, 8+ cases, March 2000 Symptoms: diarrhea, generally without pain or cramping Control: avoid specific fish species FDA guideline: escolar should not be imported (no longer enforced)

47 Pfiesteria planetENN, September 30, 1996

48 Pfiesteria piscicida Discovered in 1988 Phytoplankton (dinoflagellate)
Up to 24 life stages (4 may be toxic) Eats other organisms, usually algae Discovered in 1988 Phytoplankton (dinoflagellate) Up to 24 life stages (4 may be toxic) Eats other organisms, usually algae

49 Pfiesteria Blooms Pfiesteria may produce toxins that numb fish, allowing the microbes to feed on the fish High concentrations of Pfiesteria can cause deep lesions on fish and may kill them Blooms usually exist for only a few hours Several massive fish kills in estuaries along coastal North Carolina Pfiesteria may produce toxins that numb fish, allowing the microbes to feed on the fish High concentrations of Pfiesteria can cause deep lesions on fish and may kill them Blooms usually exist for only a few hours Several massive fish kills in estuaries along coastal North Carolina

50 Pfiesteria No cases of seafood-borne illness have been reported
Human health effects have occurred in laboratories where researchers were working in close proximity to high concentrations of the microorganism Anglers, water skiers, fish-kill monitors have complained of skin lesions, headaches, lightheadedness, short-term memory loss No cases of seafood-borne illness have been reported Human health effects have occurred in laboratories where researchers were working in close proximity to high concentrations of the microorganism Anglers, water skiers, fish-kill monitors have complained of skin lesions, headaches, lightheadedness, short-term memory loss

51 Information Sources FDA’s Bad Bug Book
Seafood Network Information Center

52


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