1. Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Factors Shaping Tourism
Learning Objectives:
Explain the objective factors
Explain the effects of cultural background on travel decisions.
Explain the effects of time & income on travel decisions.
Explain the effects of socio-economic background on travel decisions.
Explain the effects of psychographic background on travel decisions.
Explain the subjective factors—Motivations

2. Overview The objective factors Why people travel? (reasons)
The effects of TIME on travel
The effects of INCOME on travel
Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects on travel
The effects of CULTURE on travel
The effect of PERSONALITY on travel
Other forces
Why people travel? (reasons)
Motivation
Pull motivation & Push motivation
Motivation theories and implications
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs;
The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988, 1991, 1993);
Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory;
Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

3. Barriers to Travel 1. Cost 2. Lack of time 3. Health limitations
4. Family stage
5. Fear and safety
6. Lack of interest

4. The effects of TIME on travel
Time can be spent in one of three ways:
Work:
Maintenance: activities that are necessary to sustain and maintain life, such as eating, sleeping, maintaining the house.
Leisure: the time remaining after work and maintenance activities have been completed.

5. Vacation time as of July 2003
Country
Days by law
Average
Sweden 25
25-35
Austria 30
Denmark
Germany 24
Italy 20
Norway 21
Spain
France
25-30
Switzerland
Ireland 28
Australia
Finland
Netherlands
Portugal 22
United Kingdom
Belgium
Greece 23
Japan 10
17.5
China 15
U.S.
10.2

6. The effects of TIME on travel
China’s situation?
To meet the growing demand for leisure travel among China’s own citizens and to encourage personal consumption for economic growth, the central government has issued a number of policies to promote tourism.
In 1992, weeklong holidays were first introduced;
In 1995, a five-day work week was introduced;
Starting in 1999, three weeklong holidays were established around May 1(May Day/Labor Day), October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.
Starting in 2008, only two weeklong holidays were remained around October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.

7. The effects of INCOME on travel
Personal income
Taxes
Disposable income
Personal outlays Discretionary income
Consumer durables Savings Recreation

8. The effects of INCOME on travel
Personal Income
An individual's total annual gross earnings coming from wages, business enterprises and various investments.
Income tax
A tax levied on net personal or business income.
A tax on any money earned during a fiscal year, usually filed on a yearly basis.
Disposable Income
The amount of income left after paying taxes.
Discretionary Income
The amount of an individual's income that is left for spending after the essentials have been taken care of.
Individual income that is not allocated for necessary items such as food and shelter.
Dual Income, No Kids - DINKS
A household in which there are two incomes and no children.
DINKS are often the target of marketing efforts for luxury items such as expensive cars and vacations.

9. Personal income in the United States
Personal income for the population age 25 or older.
Source:

10. Income in the United States
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006

11. Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects
Age
Generational influence
Sex
Education
Life cycle stages

12. Class model regarding the social structure of the United States.
This particular model was introduced by William Thompson and Joseph Hickey in Society in Focus in 2005.

13. The effects of CULTURE on travel
Culture can be defined as a “set of beliefs, values, attitudes, habits, and forms of behavior that are shared by a society and are transmitted from generation to generation”.

14. The effects of culture on travel
Hofstede found the value patterns vary along four main dimensions:
Power Distance (social hierarchy, formality)
Individualism vs Collectivism
(individual/group achievements)
The closeness of the relationship between one person and other persons.
Femininity vs Masculinity (social roles)
Uncertainty Avoidance (ambiguity)
How to deal with the uncertainty of future;
The role of opinion leaders is strong and safety is important in high scoring countries.
Hofstede (1980, 2001)

15. Evidence for Different Work Values across Cultures

16. Country Cluster and their Value Systems
Source: Jackofsky, Slocum & McQuaid (1988). ‘Cultural Values and the CEO: Alluring Companions?’, The Academy of Management Executive, Vol 11(1), 39-49; Original Source: Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications

17. The effect of PERSONALITY on travel
Introverts (introverted):
look into themselves and tend to be shy and reserved.
Extroverts (extroverted):
Are other-oriented, looking outside the self, and tending to be objective rather than subjective in outlook.
People from the East prefer dependable types of travel while people from the West prefer more venturesome types of travel;

18. Other External Factors Impacting Tourism
Political stability
Energy prices rising directly affects consumer disposable income
Exchange rate
The Canadian dollar is expected to stay on par with current levels.
Outbound Canadian travel will remain strong.
Public health issue — SARS，H1N1 flu
According to the Conference Board of Canada……..Canada’s comparative advantage is slipping

19. Tourism Motivations
Robert W. McIntosh, Charles R. Goeldner, JR Brent Ritchie (1995) proposed four basic tourism motivations in their book named Tourism: Principles, Practices and Philosophies:
Physical
Cultural
Interpersonal
Status and prestige

20. Motivation
Motivation: the drive to satisfy needs and wants, both physiological and psychological through the purchase and use of products and services.
Push motivations: internal, socio-psychological motivations that predispose the individual to travel. (whether to go?)
Pull motivation: external motivations that attract the individual to a specific destination once the decision to travel has been made.
(where to go?)

21. Push and Pull factors
People travel because they are pushed by physiological, psychological, intangible and internal factors; and people travel also because they are pulled by the unique things a destination features, such as image, recreation facilities, education, appreciating scenery, safety, gambling and foods.

22. Motivational Push Items

23. Motivational pull items

24. Motivation theories
The present research concentrates on the development, modification, and potential enhancement of one of the existing theories of tourist motivation.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs;
The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988, 1991, 1993);
Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory;
Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

25. Maslow’s Theory
Sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times
Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
When the important need is satisfied, it stops being a motivator

26. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self Actualization
Esteem Needs (self-esteem)
Social Needs (sense of belonging, love)
Safety Needs
(security, protection)
Physiological Needs
(hunger, thirst)

27. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
According to Maslow there are five needs forming a hierarchy. Maslow’s needs and their order of priority are:
Physiological -- food, water, shelter, reproduction
Safety -- stability, security, structure
Love -- affiliation, affection, sense of belonging
Esteem -- success, self worth, achievement
Self-actualization -- self fulfillment, personal growth
Maslow’s suggested that a person will be motivated to fulfill a higher level need only if lower needs have already been fulfilled.

28. The travel career ladder
Pearce’s Travel Career Ladder is based on a hierarchy of travel motives and builds on Maslow’s model (in Pearce et al., 1998).
Each person has a “travel career” just as they have a “work career”.
People start their travel careers at different levels during their travel careers.
Broadly, the TCL theory proposed that people progress upward through the levels of motivation when accumulating travel experiences.
People’s travel decisions and decision-making processes are not static; they change over a person’s lifetime based on their travel experiences.

29. The travel needs ladder
Fulfilment needs
Need for self-actualization Need for flow experience
Self-esteem/development needs
(Other directed) Need for status Need for respect recognition Need for achievement
(Self-directed) Need for self-development Need for growth Need for mastery, control competence Need for self-efficacy
Relationship needs
(Other directed) Need to reduce anxiety about others Need to affiliate
(Self-directed)
Need to give love, affection
Safety/security needs
(Other directed)
Need for security
(Self-directed) Need to reduce anxiety Need to predict and explain the world
Relaxation needs
(Externally oriented) need for escape, excitement, curiosity Need for arousal, external excitement, stimulation
(Internally oriented) Need for rest, eating, drinking Need for relaxation (manage arousal level)
People tend to ascend the ladder as they become more experienced travelers
Higher-level motives include low-level motives. Lower-level motives have to be satisfied or experienced before high-level motives come into play
The travel needs ladder

30. Optimal Arousal Theory
Optimal Arousal Theory, also named two dimensional theory of tourist motivation, is developed by S. E. Iso-Ahola’s.
The basic principle behind the optimal arousal theory is that a person seeks out a level of stimulation that is best for him/her as an individual. If a person’s life is too quiet, the person may seek out stimulation through activity. If too much is happening in a person’s world, then the person seeks to cut off stimulation and find a quieter environment.
Tourism provides an excellent means of accommodating a person’s need for an optimal level of stimulation. Someone whose day-to-day life is overbearing may choose to visit a remote, peaceful setting to counter the pressures of home and work. Someone whose work and life are boring may want a vacation that supplies adventure and excitement.

31. Iso-Ahola’s theory of seeking and escaping
Source: Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1984). Social psychological foundations of leisure and resultant implications for leisure counseling. In Leisure counseling: concepts and
applications, E. T. Dowd, ed., pp Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

32. Plog’s allocentric-psychocentric theory
Psychocentric-allocentric model
This work was historically important in providing one organizing theory of travel motivation.
It offers only a single trait: a static and extrinsic account of tourist motivation
It is not of universal application
It is limited by its formulation in the tourism context of the early 1970s

33. Plog’s distribution of psychological segments -five types personality
Plog (1973) used a psychometric scale to categories tourists into allocentric, mid-centric and psychocentric, depending on individual's relative focus on their own culture and the one they are visiting.
Psychocentrics tourists like good facilities; nice swimming pools; well-organized trip; pub lunches.

34. Plog’s distribution of psychological segments
The personality scale helps to explain why destinations rise and fall in popularity. In particular, tourists’ personality characteristics determine their travel patterns and preferences.
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

35. Psychographic positions of destinations (1972)
Psychocentric: Conservative in travel pattern, prefer ‘safe’ destinations.
Allocentric: Adventurous and discover , prefer ‘new’ destinations.
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

36. Psychographic positions of destinations (2001)
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13