1. Socrates, Plato & The Sophist

2. The Sophists Protagoras Gorgias Thrasymachus
Argued that truth was relative.
Taught rhetoric, the art of persuasion, regardless of the truth.

3. Protagoras
Man is the measure of all things. Of the things that are, that they are, of the things that are not, that they are not.

4. Relativism Protagoras is a relativist about knowledge.
The question is what type of relativist?
Is knowledge relative to the:
Individual
Culture
Species

5. Protagoras regarding God
About the gods, I am not able to know whether they exist or do not exist, nor what they are like in form; for the factors preventing knowledge are many; the obscurity of the subject, and the shortness of human life.
Agnostic- undecided about god’s existence.

6. Views on God Agnostic- undecided about god’s existence.
Atheist- God does not exist.
Theist- God exist

7. Gorgias 1) That nothing exist
2) That if anything does exist, it is incomprehensible
3) That even if it is comprehensible, it cannot be communicated.

8. Can’t express knowledge
If reality is comprehensible, it cannot be accurately communicated.
He claimed that we communicate with words,
Words are only symbols or signs,
Symbols can never be the same as the thing they represent.
For this reason knowledge cannot be adequately communicated.

9. Impossible to Express 1) People communicate with words
2) Words are (symbols, signs, sounds)
3) Words are not the same as the thing they represent
4) Our ideas are not the same as words.
5) For this reason knowledge (our ideas) cannot be adequately communicated with words.

10. Skepticism The idea that we do not have knowledge.
Gorgias’ skepticism lead him to the study and teaching of rhetoric.

11. Thrasymachus Thra-sym-achus Injustice Pays!
Justice is for the ignorant.

12. Thrasymachus
The wise pursue their own interest at the expense of others.
Might = Right.
A view echoed by Thomas Hobbes and Nietzsche.

13. Socrates ( BC)
Socrates asked probing questions of the intellectual elite in Athens.

14. Socrates ( BC)
All sources agree that Socrates was exceedingly ugly, had an unorthodox (lowly) manner of dress, and often wandered around barefooted.

15. The Oracle of Delphi
Declared by the Oracle at Delphi to be the Wisest of men- he said he was wise because he admitted his ignorance!

16. Dialogues or plays
Socrates taught orally and did not put his doctrines into writing.
He did not write books. His student, Plato, wrote dialogues that reflect his views.
These are accounts of debates.

17. Not a Sophist
Unlike the Sophists (who were paid for teaching wealthy aristocrats the skills of oration and persuasive argument)
Socrates charged no fees and taught students (including women) from various walks of life.

18. Socratic Method
The Socratic Method is used to arrive at truth- The Essential Nature of Things.
Also known as dialectic method, it is where you continue to question something until you arrive at a definition of the thing in question. (If that is possible)

19. Socrates and his Student Plato

20. The Trial of Socrates 399 B. C.
Socrates was accused of Impiety- (refusing to acknowledge the gods recognized by the State )
& Corrupting the young. 
Jury of 500 Found Socrates Guilty.
Sentenced to Death… Could have escaped into exile. Choose to accept death sentence.

21. Socrates was found guilty by a jury of 500, sentenced to Death!

22. Plato B.C.
Plato, the student of Socrates, founded the first University in the year 387- called the Academy.
Science and knowledge were the chief goals of study.
The mind was trained to cut thru rhetoric.

23. Plato’s Philosophy Theory of Forms Allegory of the Cave Divided Line
Platonic Forms
Platonic Realism
Division of the Soul
Philosopher King
Memories of the Soul

24. Allegory of the Cave Plato ask us to imagine…
…that men believe the shadows are real.
This is told in class, and it is told well.
Page 40 in Book.

25. Plato on knowledge
Plato thinks that because this world is constantly changing, that truth is this world is impossible.
Truth for Plato is something, eternal.
Objects in this world are not eternal, so are beliefs about them cannot always be correct.

26. Divided Line (p.51) Intelligible World FORMS Knowledge
Truth/ Knowledge
Numbers & Sets
Thinking
Visible World
Physical Objects
Belief
Opinion
Images, copies of objects
Opinion or Imagining

27. Platonic Forms PLATONIC FORMS: UNIVERSAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS ETERNAL
CHANGLESS
TIMELESS
NON-MATERIAL ESSENCES

28. Platonic Forms Continued
All physical objects are copies of these original entities
They exist in another plain of reality- in an immaterial realm.

29. Modes of Thought
Knowledge
Thinking
Belief
Imagining

30. Imagining Imagining is the lowest form of knowledge.
It is the lowest because the mind does not know it is just an image- it thinks the image is real (as in the CAVE)
An Imagine is an imperfect copy of a physical object. As such it is lower on the scale of knowledge than the physical thing.

31. Belief A belief is held about some physical object.
Physical objects do not correspond to the “true” or “real” Form that they copy.
Beliefs about physical objects are not certain, because the objects and world are in a state of changing.
Physical objects are not eternal.

32. Thinking Thinking is a deeper level of understanding.
One moves from the visible world, to the intelligible world of thought.
The objects of mathematics, such as numbers, sets, geometric figures and formula make up this level of knowledge.

33. Knowledge Perfect Intelligence- Knowledge of the Forms.
At this level of understanding the mind grasp the unity of reality, and the truth that the ideas or Forms are what really exist!

34. Platonic Forms
Plato claimed that all physical objects copy the original, unchanging Form.
Physical objects are imperfect copies.
Like Heraclitus, he held that this reality is constantly changing and shifting.
What is true today may be false tomorrow in this world.
In the realm of the Forms- truth is eternal.

35. How are Forms related to one another.
Forms are related to one another.
For Example:
Form Animal Form Shape
Form Horse Form Circle
Particular Horse Particular circle

36. How are Forms related to Particulars
Particulars- or Particular objects, partake of the Form.
Socrates partakes in the Form Man
The clock partakes in circle, clock, numbers…
How specific we need to get is a question.

37. Platonic Realism
The notion that Forms or Ideas exist in a separate reality is known as Platonic Realism.

38. Universals and Particulars.
This is an issue in metaphysics-
What is the relationship between ideas and objects.
Universals is another name for ideas or concepts. (General terms)
Particulars is another name for objects or individual things that we encounter in the world.

39. Ontological Status of Ideas
Platonic Realism
Exaggerated Realism
Conceptualism
Extreme Nominalism

40. Platonic Realism
Ideas are real. They have independent existence, apart from our thoughts.
For Plato Universals have Transcendental existence apart from the particulars that participate. The Form is the cause of the essence of a thing, and the particulars are said to imitate or copy the Forms in an imperfect way.

41. Exaggerated Realism
Exaggerated Realism is the notion that Universals exist in the particulars as part of what makes them similar.
The particulars are a mix or composite of form and matter.

42. Aristotle’s Exaggerated Realism
Aristotle did not accept Plato’s claim that there was a separate realm, or heaven of Forms.
Aristotle claimed that forms were real, but existed in the objects that we perceive and in our minds.

43. St. Anselm’s Exaggerated Realism
St. Anselm argued that the doctrine of original sin and of the Trinity required this interpretation of what ideas are.

44. Conceptualism
All ideas are real, but the are dependent upon a mind, or thought.
The function of a universal term is to denote a special relationship between particular objects. Universal are object concepts that we form in our minds by examining particulars.

45. Extreme Nominalism
Ideas are not real objects. They do not have real existence.
Only particulars or individuals exist in nature. A general term, a universal, such as a word does not refer to anything; it is only a word (voces), or a name (nomen), composed of letters and expressed as a vocal emission and is therefore only air.

46. How do we know the Forms
Why should we accept that there is a separate reality filled with ideas?
Plato claims that he remembers the Forms.
According to Plato our Soul is eternal, and once existed in the realm of the Forms.

47. Memories of the Soul
According to Plato our soul is eternal. It comes from the realm of the Forms and is infused with the body during pregnancy.
All of us had complete access to all the Forms
We all have within our soul, absolute knowledge.

48. Division of the Soul
According to Plato the soul is divided into three parts.
Tripartite conception of the soul.
Reason
Spirit
Appetite

49. Reason
Reason guides us rationally towards reasonable goals

50. Spirit
Spirit gives us the ability to comply with reason, to be brave and follow thru with our goals

51. Appetite
The appetitive side of our soul drives our impulses and desires.
Reason, according to Plato, must keep the desires in check.
Allowing our passions to make decision will lead to chaos and ruin.

52. Plato and ignorance Ignorance leads to evil.
Plato claims that no one knowingly does wrong.
Akrasia- or weakness of the will, does not exist.
People simply do not understand the harm they are doing by performing certain actions.

53. Philosopher King
Plato argued that society should be ordered like the soul.
Reason- Philosopher King
Spirit- Auxiliaries or Soldiers
Appetites- workers/ artisans

54. Plato’s Ideal Society
Plato’s ideal society is an intellectual Aristocracy.
Smart people deciding for everyone the right and the good.
Because smart people have a true grasp of the world.

55. Ranking of Social Structures
Plato thought an intellectual aristocracy was the best form of government.
He held that a democracy was the worst.