1. Sociology 2: Class 15: World Society Theory, Realism
Copyright © 2014 by Evan Schofer
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2. Announcements Midterm grading complete Today’s class:
World Society Theory
Realism

3. Review: Theories of Globalization
Big-T Theories – the ideas of “big thinkers”
Developing your ability to think abstractly
General perspectives on the economy
Adam Smith, Marx, Keynesianism
Sociological theories
Modernization theory
World Systems Theory / dependency theory
World Society theory
Political Science
Realism
Institutionalism (Political science) / Interdependence.

4. Review: World Society Theory
World Society = associations & culture in the international sphere
Observation: Participants in the international community share a common culture
IGOs and NGOs are typically run by people educated in Western-style tradition, believe in common things
Example: Democracy, economic growth, education, etc
Observation: Societies have become quite similar in terms of government and policies
Called “isomorphism”
Ex: Countries adopted similar education & legal systems, health policies, environmental laws, etc.

5. World Society Theory One alternative to “interest-based” action:
Action is governed by culture and social norms
A very different view: People vote because they are “supposed to”…
We live in a society in which voting is highly valued
Example: Some of the biggest predictors of voting include: whether friends or parents vote
If you are surrounded by voters (and pro-voting norms) you are more likely to vote.

6. World Society Theory How does culture affect us? 1. By providing norms
Norms indicate proper behavior in a given situation
You could come to class wearing scuba gear… but norms discourage it.
In fact, we rarely consider actions that are against norms.

7. World Society Theory 2. By providing scripts
Scripts are taken-for-granted “recipes” for behavior that we share and understand
Example: If you are interested in courting someone, you ask them on a date
You do not show up at their house with a dowry gift and ask their father’s permission to marry
People in a common culture generally follow similar scripts.

8. World Society Theory 3. By providing cognitive models
“Cognitive models” or “maps” are mental frameworks or blueprints that people share
Example: Suppose you were chosen to set up a new school… How would you design it?
How many grades? What subjects? How big would classes be? When would the school year be?

9. Rational actors vs stage actors
One common image in social science is that countries are rational “strategic” actors
World society theory offers an alternative image
More like stage actors following scripts…

10. World Society Theory
Note: Most ideas are drawn from a familiar “model” of the school
Would you teach by apprenticeship? Keep boys and girls separate? Teach classes on astrology? Probably not!
In the language of social psychology: We all possess a similar “cognitive model” or “map” of a school
It is that which we “take for granted”.

11. School: Nigeria

12. School: Cameroon

13. School: Tajikistan

14. School: Colombia

15. School: Guatemala

16. World Society Theory What do theories predict about schools?
Modernization theory predicted that poor, agricultural societies would be different from “modern” ones
Example: Agricultural societies should have schools focused on farming/agriculture
World system theory predicts that peripheral economies are subordinated by “core countries”
Schools should be organized to produce workers; more efficient capitalist exploitation
World society theory predicts that schools will be similar everywhere
The result of a common global culture

17. World Society Theory
Key observation: Over the past 50 years societies have become more similar in terms of government and policies
Called “isomorphism”
Ex: Poor agricultural countries DIDN’T create different educational systems
They adopted systems similar to rich Western countries
Ex: Countries also adopted similar legal systems, population and health policies, environmental laws, etc…
The kind of policies everyone is “supposed to” have

18. World Society Theory
World Society Theory suggests that states govern on the basis of cognitive models
Cognitive models come from world society
Associations, IGOs, NGOs, and other states essentially define “appropriate” behavior for governments
IGOs and NGOs convey models of how to govern
Example: World bank conveys models of economic governance; UNESCO suggests educational advice; Amnesty International suggests human rights policies.

19. World Society Theory
“Worldwide models… define appropriate constitutions, goals, organization charts, ministry structures, and policies… Nation-states are imagined communities drawing on models that are lodged at the world level.”
Meyer et al. 1997
Island example: What if a new territory were discovered?
How would IGOs, INGOs, & global culture reshape it?

20. World Society Theory
Question: How does World Society Theory view international organizations?
They play a key role: sustaining and promulgating a common culture to nations around the world
Greenpeace, UNEP, and other international organizations convey norms about what nations should do to protect the environment
Note: International organizations don’t have “power”. They can’t force states to do anything
Nor does every single country obey the norms
But, over time norms, scripts, cognitive models have a major effect on behavior.

21. IGOs/INGOs & Global Norms
International organizations: a source of norms

22. IGOs/INGOs & Global Norms

23. Ex: World Society Theory Research
Issue: Which countries have pro-environmental policies?
The most developed?
The ones with the worst pollution?
Answer:
1. Pretty much all countries have begun to enact similar environmental laws…
An example of conformity or “isomorphism”
2. Countries that are most connected to international organizations conform faster
Those “linked” to the world Society are more exposed to global norms/culture…

24. World Society Theory Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”?
World Society theory is a new theory, but growing
1. World Society research on isomorphism in government policy is considered compelling
Convincing evidence that states are remarkably similar in many areas
Despite large differences in level of development and other factors that make similarity “surprising”
World Society Theory research finds isomorphism in many areas
Evolutions of education systems around the world
Understanding the success of the environmental movement
Also, lots of work on trends regarding human rights.

25. World Society Theory Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”?
2. World Society Theorists were first to realize the importance of INGOs in driving social change
Other perspectives tended to ignore them…
3. The ideas behind World Society Theory have garnered support in other areas
Called “neo-institutional theory”
Especially the study of organizations
This suggests potential… so people are working to apply its ideas to global issues.

26. World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory
1. It doesn’t address power
This is intentional: World Society Theory represents a “corrective”, emphasizing the influence of norms and culture
“the social sciences are reluctant to acknowledge patterns of influence and conformity that cannot be explained solely as matters of power or functional rationality.”
But, colonial relations were historically important in defining Western ideas as the dominant ‘world’ culture
Also, current global trends reflect US hegemony
World Society Theory scholars point out that US doesn’t always benefit
e.g., when countries conform to US models of education
But, still it seems like power may be important.

27. World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory
2. It doesn’t sufficiently address actors or “agency”
Again, this is an intentional goal of the theory… which has come under criticism
Theory implies we are all controlled by a wider culture
Builds on Durkheim’s ideas of ‘collective consciousness’
Where is room for agency? How can it explain variability in the world?

28. World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory:
3. World Society Theory explains government policies… but not life “on the ground”
Conformity to world culture may be strategic (e.g,. to garner foreign aid) or very “thin”
Ex: China may pretend to conform to global norms… but in fact that is just a façade
Interests, rather than culture are really driving behavior
World Society Theory scholars have begun responding to this criticism… but the issue is still being debated…

29. World Society Theory Bottom line:
World Society Theory is an interesting theory – offers a whole new lens to view the world
A very useful lens that explains some things that other theories can’t
Also very useful for understanding organizations…
May be helpful if you start working for a big company
But, people interested in power/inequality find it very frustrating
It doesn’t directly address the issues they care most about
Plus, it is a newer perspective… more evidence needed to fully evaluate it.

30. Realism
Realism was the dominant theory of International Relations for 30 years
Related theory: Neo-realism; I’ll lump them together.
Claim: State behavior is driven by the desire to survive and become more powerful
This occurs through war and military competition

31. Realism: Main Assumptions
Basic assumptions of realism:
Keohane and Nye, p. 20-1
1. States as coherent units are the dominant actors in world politics
States are the most important entities in the international system
Multi-nationals corps., IGOs, and INGOs are unimportant
Without an army or nuclear weapons, you’re nothing!
Also, states are “unitary” actors, when it comes to international issues

32. Realism: Main Assumptions
2. Military force (or threat of force) is the most effective means of wielding power
The strong survive and prosper
3. The politics of “security” is what matters
“Security” = policies, plans, and preparations regarding war & national defense
States use other policies, like economic sanctions or trade to get their way… but that is secondary
Note: This disagrees with World-System Theory
World-system theory focuses on economic power.
Military power is part of the theory… it helps maintain economic dominance. But, the economy is key.

33. Realism States are in a constant struggle for survival
Historically, weak states were taken over or colonized
Think Machiavelli… better to stab someone else in the back than get stabbed!

34. Realism International system is an anarchy
Definition: Anarchy: Lawlessness… absence of government or agreed upon rules/norms
Struggle for survival is paramount
States are not “nice guys”… They lie, cheat, and steal to increase their power over others
Example: Why did the US invade Iraq?
To “liberate Iraqis”? – a realist would say NO!
States go to war to wipe out enemies, gain as many resources as possible
States may come up with justifications, but everything is a grab for more power.

35. Realism vs. world-system theory
World-System Theory argues that the global system mainly benefits capitalists and that capitalists run the show
Why did US go to war in Iraq?
World system scholars would look at influence of oil companies, Halliburton, and military contractors
War caused by people hoping to get rich.
Realism argues that states run the show, not corporations.

36. Realism
Some argue that: U.S. policy on Iraq reflected (in part) policymakers who believe that realism is correct
Ex: Condoleeza Rice, a former Poli Sci Professor
(Though some realists have criticized the war…)
Realism suggests that the way to be safe is to maximize military dominance, defeat enemies
Argument: by showing overwhelming power, the US will intimidate enemies (e.g., Syria)
Plus, gain control of strategic resources like oil
Result: US would be benefit from military dominance
Assuming the war didn’t bog down, sap resources, and make the US look feeble…

37. Realism: Criticisms Criticisms of Realism:
1. Realism did not predict (nor does it often address) globalization in any of its forms
Example: The EU has had a huge impact on politics and economics in Europe… but Realism mostly ignores it
Nor does it address the “global norms” that are discussed by world society theory and constructivism.

38. Realism: Criticisms
2. Perhaps military dominance isn’t such a big deal anymore
Are states still in a constant struggle for survival?
It is hard to imagine Italy attacking Austria or Sweden attacking Britain
In the 21st century, many dominant nations have almost no military strength: Japan, most small European countries
Of course, this is what people thought in 1913…
Maybe realism will be proved “right” in the end!
Economic and social issues matter
Maybe even norms…

39. Realism
Bottom line:
1. Realism provides a very good explanation of warfare in the 1700s & 1800s
Warfare was commonplace
The international system was more like an anarchy
States really were in a struggle for survival
2. Also, realists have the most sophisticated analyses of the Cold War
Though newer perspectives are beginning to challenge this.

40. Realism Bottom line (continued):
3. The simple logic of realism is very attractive
“Interest-based” explanations are highly intuitive…
BUT: lots of historical events are hard to explain from this perspective…
Decline in territorial war, brute-force imperialism
Emergence of the EU, dense webs of IGOs
Examples where states appear to conform to norms
Ex: Many states are improving records on human rights, etc

41. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Keohane and Nye: Institutionalism / Interdependence
A critical response to realism
Major claims:
1. Societies are interconnected in many ways
Not just leaders and militaries, as realism suggests
2. States interact over many kinds of issues
War and security isn’t the only issue
Economics, environmental issues, etc., are also addressed.

42. Institutionalism / Interdependence
3. Military force is not central to inter-state relations
Question: If military force doesn’t matter, what does?
Answer #1: International organizations
They are the playing field of global politics
Answer #2: “Soft Power”: “Getting others to want the outcomes you want” (Nye p. 5)
“Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others

43. Institutionalism / Interdependence
4. International organizations are the center of global politics
They set agendas (e.g., trade, environmental issues)
Within international organizations, states form coalitions and push for their interests
All states have an equal vote in most IGOs… so they barter and haggle.
Result: world politics is a lot like national politics.

44. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Claim: To study global politics, you have to study what goes on in international organizations
Example: WTO policy
A World-system theorist would predict that the WTO would always support interests of capitalists
A Realist would ignore the WTO as irrelevant
A Complex Interdependence scholar would examine coalitions, alliances, and votes to see what is going on.

45. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Claim: “International organizations are frequently congenial institutions for weak states”… Keohane and Nye, p. 31
Nations have equal voting power in most IGOs
This allows small/weak nations to form powerful coalitions
Ex: poor nations can sometimes block or influence WTO rules
Many IGOs support norms of equity
Example: the UN uses money from wealthy countries to aid those in poverty.

46. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Both realism and WST predict that weak nations will be mercilessly exploited & dominated
Institutionalism / interdependence predicts otherwise
Weak countries will be able to use international organizations to improve their situation
Ex: Poor countries have negotiated for special treatment in many environmental treaties.

47. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Realism and WST argue that all nations will look out for themselves (or capitalist classes)
Ex: They will cheat on environmental treaties; They will build weapons of mass destruction
Treaties and IGOs are inherently fragile… Powerful nations will ignore or abolish them when the are no longer useful
Institutionalism / Interdependence: Through IGOs, countries can work for the collective good
Complex Interdependence predicts that nations can improve the environment, eradicate WMD
Ex: Non-proliferation treaty; Environmental treaties.

48. Institutionalism / Interdependence
Criticisms of Institutionalism / Interdependence
Summarized in article by Waltz
1. “The world is less interdependent than is usually supposed”
Levels of trade aren’t much higher than in 1914, just before WWI; most MNCs are still rooted in one country.
2. Political/military power still matters
US power holds up global institutions (IMF, World Bank)
Ultimately, economics is subordinate to politics.

49. Constructivism
Sikkink, Kathryn “Transnational Politics, International Relations Theory, and Human Rights.”
Political science’s version of “World Society Theory”
A criticism of realism
Calls attention to global norms like “human rights”
Argument: “Non-state actors” (e.g., INGOs) establish norms, which states feel pressure to abide by

50. Constructivism Sikkink, p. 520:
“While states continue to be the primary actors in this system, their actions need to be understood not as self-help behavior in anarchy, but as the actions of members of an international society of states and non-state actors.”
“…states may make changes in their behavior not only because of the economic costs of sanctions, but because leaders of countries care about what leaders of other countries think about them.”

51. Theory: Remarks
The explosion of global governance, apparent influence of “norms” was a surprise to existing theories
Esp., Realism & World-system theory
Now scholars are trying to make sense of things
Keohane&Nye and Sikkink are political sciences responses…
Point out the way that “social actors” are interconnected; influenced by norms
States are actors… but less “unitary”, more constrained than realism suggests.

52. Theory: Remarks
World Society Theory is a more radical view than even constructivism
Argues for the primacy of culture…
“Social actors” are not the starting point of the analysis… culture is
Social actors are fundamentally constructed by culture
… they are more like “actors” on the stage or in movies than “strategic actors”

53. Theories and Soft Power
The rise of theories emphasizing international institutions, culture, and norms has led to a rethinking of power
Realism focuses on “hard power” such as military force. Carrots and sticks.
Newer theories suggest that ideas, culture, beliefs matter…
Definition: Attraction = winning people over, getting them to support you
Video: Keohane on Soft Power
1:20 to 11:45
Video\Joseph_Nye_on_Soft_Power-1.flv

54. Theory: Remarks What I want you to know:
1. Be able to briefly summarize theories
2. Know (or be able to think up) examples that support or contradict particular theories
What does the theory predict?
What information or evidence would convince you that WST was absolutely right? Or totally wrong?
3. Hopefully start to be able to apply these theories to new topics
How would a World-system scholar think about international organizations?
What does a Realist think about culture?