1. Organic
Polymer
Chemistry

2. Some Definitions Polymer: From the Greek, poly + meros, many parts.
Any long-chain molecule synthesized by bonding together single parts called monomers.
Monomer: From the Greek, mono + meros, single part.
The simplest nonredundant unit from which a polymer is synthesized.
Plastic: A polymer that can be molded when hot and retains its shape when cooled.

3. Continued
Thermoplastic: A polymer that can be melted and molded into a shape that is retained when it is cooled.
Thermoset plastic: A polymer that can be molded when it is first prepared but, once it is cooled, hardens irreversibly and cannot be remelted.

4. Notation & Nomenclature
Show the structure by placing parens around the repeat unit:
n = average degree of polymerization.
To name a polymer, prefix poly to the name of the monomer from which it is derived.
For more complex monomers or where the name of the monomer is two words, enclose the name of the monomer in parens, for example poly(vinyl chloride).

5. Molecular Weight
All polymers are mixtures of individual polymer molecules of variable MWs.
number average MW: Count the number of chains of a particular MW (Ni moles), multiply each number by the MW (Mi), sum these values, and divide by the total number of polymer chains.
weight average MW:

6. Example Sample has the unique chains Chain MW, Mi Moles Present, Ni
Mass, MiNi
120
0.10
12g
140
0.20 28 14
160
0.30 48
0.40 64
180 36
200 20

7. Example Now for weight averaged MW 140 Chain MW, Mi Moles Present, Ni
Mass, MiNi
120
0.10
12g
140
0.20 28 14
160
0.30 48
0.40 64
180 36
200 20
140

8. Polydispersivity Index
PDI = Mw/Mn measures the extent of different molecular weights. PDI greater than or equal to 1.0

9. Morphology
Polymers tend to crystallize as they precipitate or are cooled from a melt.
Acting to inhibit crystallization are that polymers are large molecules. Complicated and irregular shapes prevent efficient packing into ordered structures.
As a result, polymers in the solid state tend to be composed of
ordered crystalline domains
disordered amorphous domains

10. Morphology: Crysatline
High degrees of crystallinity are found in polymers with
regular, compact structures
strong intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonds and dipolar interactions.
As the degree of crystallinity increases, the polymer becomes more opaque due to scattering of light by the crystalline regions.
Melt transition temperature, Tm: The temperature at which crystalline regions melt.
As the degree of crystallinity increases, Tm increases.

11. Morphology: Amorphous
Highly amorphous polymers are sometimes referred to as glassy polymers.
Lacking crystalline domains that scatter light, amorphous polymers are transparent.
They are weaker polymers, both in terms of their greater flexibility and smaller mechanical strength.
On heating, amorphous polymers are transformed from a hard glassy state to a soft, flexible, rubbery state.
Glass transition temperature, Tg: The temperature at which a polymer undergoes a transition from a hard glass to a rubbery solid. Put polystyrene cup in boiling water.

12. Morphology
Example: poly(ethylene terephthalate), abbreviated PET or PETE, can be made with crystalline domains of 0% to 55%.

13. Morphology
Completely amorphous PET is formed by quickly cooling the melt.
PET with a low degree of crystallinity is used for plastic beverage bottles.
More crystallline formed by slow cooling, more molecular diffusion occurs and crystalline domains form as the chains become more ordered.
PET with a high degree of crystallinity can be drawn into textile fibers and tire cords.

14. Step-Growth Polymers
Step-growth polymerization: A polymerization in which chain growth occurs in a stepwise manner between difunctional monomers. Many chains initiated at same time. All monomeric -> mostly dimeric -> mostly trimers. Etc.
five types of step-growth polymers:
Polyamides
Polyesters
Polycarbonates
Polyurethanes
epoxy resins

15. Polyamides Nylon 66 Nylon 66 (from two six-carbon monomers).
During fabrication, nylon fibers are cold-drawn to about 4 times their original length, which increases alignment, crystallinity, tensile strength, and stiffness.

16. Nylon 66, source of Hexanedioic Acid
The raw material base for the production of nylon 66 is benzene, which is derived from cracking and reforming of petroleum.

17. Nylon 66, source of the 1,6 hexanediamine
Hexanedioic acid is the starting material for the synthesis of hexamethylenediamine.

18. Polyamides, Nylon 6
Nylons are a family of polymers, the two most widely used of which are nylon 66 and nylon 6.
Nylon 6 is synthesized from a six-carbon monomer.
Nylon 6 is fabricated into fibers, brush bristles, high-impact moldings, and tire cords.

19. Polyamides, Kevlar Kevlar is a polyaromatic amide (an aramid).
Cables of Kevlar are as strong as cables of steel, but only about 20% the weight.
Kevlar fabric is used for bulletproof vests, jackets, and raincoats.

20. Polyesters, PET
Poly(ethylene terephthalate), abbreviated PET or PETE, is fabricated into Dacron fibers, Mylar films, and plastic beverage containers.

21. PET, source of glycol and terepthalic acid
Ethylene glycol is obtained by air oxidation of ethylene followed by hydrolysis to the glycol.
Terephthalic acid is obtained by catalyzed air oxidation of petroleum-derived p-xylene.

22. Polycarbonates, Lexan
To make Lexan, an aqueous solution of the sodium salt of bisphenol A (BPA) is brought into contact with a solution of phosgene in CH2Cl2.

23. Phase transfer catalysis.
The sodium salt of bisphenol A is water soluble while the phosgene is not. Immiscible. No reaction.
Solution: Phase transfer catalysis. NBu4+ and a negative ion can go back and forth between the two phases.
NBu4+ brings bisphenolate ion into organic phase
Reaction occurs with phosgene producing Cl-
NBu4+ brings chloride ion into water phase.

24. Polycarbonates, Lexan
Lexan is a tough transparent polymer with high impact and tensile strengths and retains its shape over a wide temperature range.
It is used in sporting equipment, such as bicycle, football, and snowmobile helmets as well as hockey and baseball catcher’s masks.
It is also used in the manufacture of safety and unbreakable windows.

25. Polyurethanes
A urethane, or carbamate, is an ester of carbamic acid, H2NCH2COOH.
They are most commonly prepared by treatment of an isocyanate with an alcohol.
Polyurethanes consist of flexible polyester or polyether units alternating with rigid urethane units.
The rigid urethane units are derived from a diisocyanate.
Addition to the N=C bond

26. Polyurethanes
The more flexible units are derived from low MW polyesters or polyethers with -OH groups at the ends of each polymer chain.

27. Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are materials prepared by a polymerization in which one monomer contains at least two epoxy groups.
Epoxy resins are produced in forms ranging from low-viscosity liquids to high-melting solids.

28. Epoxy Resins
The most widely used epoxide monomer is the diepoxide prepared by treating one mole of bisphenol A with two moles of epichlorohydrin.

29. Epoxy Resins
Treatment of the diepoxide with a diamine gives the resin.
Note the regioselectivity

30. Thermosets
Bakelite was one of the first thermosets.

31. Chain-Growth Polymers
Chain-growth polymerization: A polymerization that involves sequential addition reactions, either to unsaturated monomers or to monomers possessing other reactive functional groups.
Reactive intermediates in chain-growth polymerizations include radicals, carbanions, carbocations, and organometallic complexes.

32. Chain-Growth Polymers
We concentrate on chain-growth polymerizations of ethylene and substituted ethylenes.
On the following two screens are several important polymers derived from ethylene and substituted ethylenes, along with their most important uses.

33. Polyethylenes

34. Polyethylenes

35. Radical Chain-Growth
Among the initiators used for radical chain-growth polymerization are diacyl peroxides, which decompose on mild heating.

36. Radical Chain-Growth
Another common class of initiators are azo compounds, which also decompose on mild heating or with absorption of UV light.

37. Radical Chain-Growth Radical polymerization of a substituted ethylene.
chain initiation
chain propagation

38. Radical Chain-Growth
chain termination.

39. Radical Chain-Growth
Radical reactions with double bonds almost always gives the more stable (the more substituted) radical.
Because additions are biased in this fashion, polymerizations of vinyl monomers tend to yield polymers with head-to-tail linkages.

40. Radical Chain-Growth
Chain-transfer reaction: The reactivity of an end group is transferred from one chain to another, or from one position on a chain to another position on the same chain.
Polyethylene formed by radical polymerization exhibits butyl branches on the polymer main chain.

41. Radical Chain-Growth
The first commercial polyethylenes produced by radical polymerization were soft, tough polymers known as low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
LDPE chains are highly branched due to chain-transfer reactions.
Because this branching prevents polyethylene chains from packing efficiently, LDPE is largely amorphous and transparent.
Approx. 65% is fabricated into films for consumer items such as baked goods, vegetables and other produce, and trash bags.

42. Ziegler-Natta Polymers
Ziegler-Natta chain-growth polymerization is an alternative method that does not involve radicals.
Ziegler-Natta catalysts are heterogeneous materials composed of a MgCl2 support, a Group 4B transition metal halide such as TiCl4, and an alkylaluminum compound.

43. Ziegler-Natta Polymers
Mechanism of Ziegler-Natta polymerization.
Step 1: Formation of a titanium-ethyl bond
Step 2: Insertion of ethylene into the Ti-C bond.

44. Ziegler-Natta Polymers
Polyethylene from Ziegler-Natta systems is termed high-density polyethylene (HDPE).
It has a considerably lower degree of chain branching than LDPE and a result has a higher degree of crystallinity, a higher density, a higher melting point, and is several times stronger than LDPE.
Appox. 45% of all HDPE is molded into containers.
With special fabrication techniques, HDPE chains can be made to adopt an extended zig-zag conformation. HDPE processed in this manner is stiffer than steel and has 4x the tensile strength!

45. Polymer Stereochemistry
There are three alternatives for the relative configurations of stereocenters along the chain of a substituted ethylene polymer.

46. Polymer Stereochemistry
In general, the more stereoregular the stereocenters are (the more highly isotactic or syndiotactic the polymer is), the more crystalline it is.
Atactic polypropylene, for example, do not pack well and the polymer is an amorphous glass.
Isotactic polypropylene is a crystalline, fiber-forming polymer with a high melt transition.

47. Ionic Chain Growth Either anionic or cationic polymerizations
Cationic polymerizations are most common with monomers with electron-donating groups.
Anionic polymerizations are most common with monomers with electron-withdrawing groups.

48. Anionic Chain Growth
Anionic polymerization can be initiated by addition of a nucleophile, such as methyl lithium, to an alkene.

49. Anionic Chain Growth
An alternative method for initiation involves a one-electron reduction of the monomer by Li or Na to form a radical anion which is either reduced or dimerized to a dianion.

50. Anionic Chain Growth sodium naphthalide may be used.
The naphthalide radical anion is a powerful reducing agent and, for example, reduces styrene to a radical anion which couples to give a dianion.

51. Anionic Chain Growth
The styryl dianion then propagates polymerization at both ends simultaneously.

52. Anionic Chain Growth
Propagation of the distyryl dianion.

53. Anionic Chain Growth
Living polymer: A polymer chain that continues to grow without chain-termination steps until either all of the monomer is consumed or some external agent is added to terminate the chains.
after consumption of the monomer under living anionic conditions, electrophilic agents such as CO2 or ethylene oxide are added to functionalize the chain ends.

54. Anionic Chain Growth
Termination by carboxylation.

55. Anionic Chain Growth
Termination by ethylene oxide.

56. Cationic Chain Growth
The two most common methods for initiating cationic polymerization are:
Addition of H+. Reaction of a strong proton acid with the monomer.
Ionization, as in SN1. Abstraction of a halide from the organic initiator by a Lewis acid.
Initiation by a proton acid requires a strong acid with a nonnucleophilic anion in order to avoid completion of the addition to the double bond
Suitable acids include HF/AsF5 and HF/BF3.

57. Cationic Chain Growth Initiation by a protic acid.
Lewis acids used for initiation include BF3, SnCl4, AlCl3, Al(CH3) 2Cl, and ZnCl2.

58. Cationic Chain Growth
initiation
propagation

59. Cationic Chain Growth
chain termination

60. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization
During early investigations into the polymerization of cycloalkenes by transition metal catalysts, polymers that contained the same number of double bonds as the monomers used to make them were formed.
for example:
this type of polymerization is known as ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP).

61. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization
ROMP polymerizations involve the same metallocyclobutene species as in ring-closing alkene metathesis reactions.

62. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization
all steps in ROMP are reversible, and the reaction is driven in the forward direction by the release of ring strain that accompanies the opening of the ring.

63. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization
ROMP is unique is that all unsaturation present in the monomer is conserved in the polymer.
polyacetylene is prepared by the ROMP technique.

64. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization
poly(phenylene vinylene) is prepared as follows.