1. Learning & Memory

2. Learning and Memory Definition and nature of learning
Types of learning
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Skinner’s Operant/ Instrumental Conditioning
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Memory and forgetting

3. Learning
Learning
relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

4. What is learning? I am learning how to ride a bike.
Some learning involves development of new skills.
I am learning how to ride a bike.
Some learning involves changes in existing behavior.
She’s learning to control her temper.
Some learning involves simple associations.
I finally learned that where there is smoke, there is fire.

5. What is learning?
And sometimes it involves learning complex belief systems.
He is trying to learn the Buddhists view of life.
We also figure things out for ourselves.
Learning a mathematical formula.
Learning can also be imposed on us by circumstance.
If you touch a hot stove, you’ll burn your hand.

6. Learning Theory
What mechanisms are responsible for the complexity of learning?
Locke (1600s) and Berkeley (early1700s)
Associationists
We learn by associating one idea with another
The word “flower” with the smell and sight of a flower
The word “stove” with the sensation of heat
More complex learning  more associations

7. Association learning that two events occur together
Learning to associate two events
learning that two events occur together
two stimuli
a response and its consequences
Event 1
Event 2
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

8. Look Bruce, when I said SIT...
Animals vs. Human
Study of animals: reveals same principles of learning that apply to humans
How does a dog learn to sit on command?
Look Bruce, when I said SIT...

9. Habituation One of the simplest forms of learning
It means; decline in response of organism’s response to stimulus once that stimulus becomes familiar; simply getting used to...
However, organism does not learn anything new from that event

10. Habituation
A common way occurs in which a person’s attention is captured by a loud or sudden stimulus. For example, a person who moves to a house on a busy street may initially be distracted every time a loud vehicle drives by. After living in the house for some time, however, the person will no longer be distracted by the street noise—the person becomes habituated to it and the initial response disappears.

11. Habituation Our environments are full of sights and sounds
Habituation allows us to ignore repetitive, unimportant stimuli.
Habituation occurs in nearly all organisms, from human beings to animals

12. Learning in Animals There are three major areas of learning:
Habituation
Classical Conditioning (by Pavlov)
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning (by Skinner)

13. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Two related events:
Lightning
Stimulus 1
Thunder
Stimulus 2
Result after repetition
We see
lightning
Stimulus
We wince
anticipating
thunder
Response
We learn to associate two stimuli

14. vending machine button Consequence:Receiving
Operant Conditioning
Response: Pushing
vending machine button
Consequence:Receiving
a candy bar
We learn to associate a response and its consequence

15. Learning Promoted by John B. Watson View that psychology… Behaviorism
should be an objective science
studies behavior without reference to mental processes

16. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions

17. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
organism comes to associate two stimuli
lightning and thunder
tone and food
begins with a reflex
a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex
neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex

18. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

19. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
effective stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth

20. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

21. Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Before Conditioning
During Conditioning
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone) No
salivation
UCR
(salivation) CS
CR (salivation)

22. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Acquisition
the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened
the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

23. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Extinction
diminishing of a conditioned response
in classical conditioning, when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

24. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
tendency, once a response has been established, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses

25. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

26. Nausea Conditioning among Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea) CS
(waiting
room) CR

27. Little Albert’s Fear Conditioning
UCS
(loud noise)
UCR
(fear) CS
(rat) CR
Stimulus similar
to rat (such as
rabbit)
Conditioned fear
(generalization)

28. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Law of Effect
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur

29. Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior complex or voluntary behaviors
push button, perform complex task
operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Respondent Behavior
occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

30. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology

31. Operant Conditioning Operant Chamber (“Skinner Box”)
soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains a device to record responses

32. Operant Conditioning Reinforcer Shaping
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

33. Principles of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer
an innate reinforcer
satisfies a biological need
Secondary Reinforcer
a conditioned reinforcer
an event that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

34. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
learning occurs rapidly
extinction occurs rapidly
Partial Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition
greater resistance to extinction

35. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
the faster you respond, the more rewards you get
different ratios
very high rate of responding
like piecework pay

36. Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR)
schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
like gambling, fishing
very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

37. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
a schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

38. Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI)
schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
produces slow, steady responding
like pop quiz

39. Punishment Punishment
aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows
powerful controller of unwanted behavior

40. Problems with Punishment
Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed--behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent
Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems-- explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

41. Problems with Punishment
Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school, learned helplessness, depression
Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior--reinforcement tells you what to do,punishment tells you what not to do-- combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone
Punishment teaches how to avoid it

42. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Map
mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

43. Operant vs Classical Conditioning
Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
The response Involuntary, automatic “Voluntary,” operates on environment
Acquisition Associating events; CS announces Associating response with a conse-
UCS quence (reinforcer or punisher).
Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly Responding decreases when reinforce-
presented alone ment stops.
Cognitive Subjects develop expectation that Subjects develop expectation that a
processes CS signals the arrival of UCS response will be reinforced or punished;
they also exhibit latent learning, without
reinforcement.
Biological Natural predispositions constrain Organisms best learn behavior similar to
predispositions stimuli and responses can easily be their natural behaviors; unnatural be-
associated haviors instinctively drift back toward
natural ones.

44. Observational Learning
learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Modeling
process of observing and imitating behavior
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
opposite of antisocial behavior