1. The Christological Controversies and the Triumph of the Church

2. Christology and the Church’s Triumph Lecture Contents Lecture Contents The Arian Controversy The Arian Controversy The Nestorian Controversy The Nestorian Controversy The Monophysite Controversy The Monophysite Controversy The Triumph of the Church The Triumph of the Church

3. The Arian Controversy Context and Question Context and Question –Constantine now a Christian emperor –Christianity now tolerated, privileged –Constantinople under construction –Question  Jesus Christ: creature, or God?

4. The Arian Controversy Arius Arius –Libyan –Presbyter in Alexandria –Preacher at a church near that city’s harbor –Musician –Concerns about his orthodoxy began 318- 20 –Thalia

5. The Arian Controversy Arius vs. Bishop Alexander Arius vs. Bishop Alexander –Arius’s belief  “There was a time when he was not…”  Father and Son not of the same essence  Jesus Christ is CREATURE –Alexander’s belief  “In the beginning was the Word…”  Father and Son one in essence  All things made by Christ  Jesus Christ is GOD

6. The Arian Controversy Arius vs. Alexander Arius vs. Alexander –Arius refused to submit to Alexander –Arius gained supporters –Alexander deposed, excommunicated Arius –Empire-wide controversy!

7. The Arian Controversy Constantine’s Reaction Constantine’s Reaction –Not pleased!  Wanted UNITY  Bishops at odds  Congregations divided  Pagans were mocking the bickering Christians –His intervention  Sent letter with Ossius of Corduba –“Agree to disagree!”  Did not fully grasp opponents’ concerns  Ossius’s mission failed  Debating continued

8. The Arian Controversy Next Step: “Ecumenical Council” Next Step: “Ecumenical Council” –Bishops from all the Roman world invited –Summoned to Nicaea –Duration: May to June 325 –Held in judgment hall of palace –Approximately 300 bishops attended, including confessors –Constantine himself attended!  Addressed bishops  Expressed grief over disagreement  Demanded peaceful resolution

9. The Arian Controversy The Council of Nicaea The Council of Nicaea –Ossius presided –Alexander of Alexandria vs. Eusebius of Nicomedia –Debates dragged on –Key debated term for Council  Homoousios: “of the same substance” –To refer to Christ’s relationship to Father  Major question: is this term acceptable? –For most, yes –Some had questions, reservations

10. The Arian Controversy The Nicene Creed The Nicene Creed –“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only- begotten of his Father, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten (γεννηθέντα), not made, being of one substance (ὁμοούσιον) with the Father. By whom all things were made, both which be in heaven and in earth. Who for us men and for our salvation came down [from heaven] and was incarnate and was made man. He suffered and the third day he rose again, and ascended into heaven. And he shall come again to judge both the quick and the dead. And [we believe] in the Holy Ghost. And whosoever shall say that there was a time when the Son of God was not, or that before he was begotten he was not, or that he was made of things that were not, or that he is of a different substance or essence [from the Father] or that he is a creature, or subject to change or conversion — all that so say, the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes them.”

11. The Arian Controversy Conclusion of Council Conclusion of Council –Arius’s views were anathematized –Constantine expected all to subscribe to creed –Very few refused  exiled!  Arius  2 Libyan bishops  Eusebius of Nicomedia –Seemed like unity had been achieved

12. The Arian Controversy Questions? Questions?

13. The Arian Controversy Aftermath of Nicaea Aftermath of Nicaea –True unity still not achieved –Bishops felt free to interpret creed in their own way –Not everyone was satisfied with homoousios

14. The Arian Controversy The Arians Strike Back! The Arians Strike Back! –Arius requested to be readmitted to Church –Constantine interviewed him (327), demanded proof of orthodoxy  satisfied –Arius was reconciled, Eusebius reinstated –Constantine demanded Arius be readmitted to Alexandrian church –Bishop Alexander refused, died shortly thereafter –Athanasius consecrated June 328

15. The Arian Controversy Athanasius vs. Arianism Athanasius vs. Arianism –Soteriology  God only can save humanity from its path of sin and destruction  savior therefore must be God  Arianism is polytheism!  Salvation cannot come from a creature –What to do with Arius?  Refused to reinstate him, having been condemned at Nicaea  Constantine intervened, threatened exile  Athanasius persisted  issue dropped

16. The Arian Controversy Constantine’s Successors Constantine’s Successors –Constantine died 337 –Three sons inherited imperial rule  Constantine II governed Western provinces –Killed in battle (340)  Constans governed Italy and North Africa –Assassinated! (350)  Constantius II governed Eastern provinces –Absorbed brothers’ territories –Arian, supporter of Eusebius of Nicomedia –Despised Athanasius  exile!

17. The Arian Controversy Constantius and the West Constantius and the West –Many in West still not aware of Arian controversy –Those who were tended to support Athanasius –Constantius demanded western condemnation of Athanasius  Ossius of Corduba caved  Council of Arles (353) and Milan (355) –Some bishops complied –Others did not  exiled –Nicene cause doomed?

18. The Arian Controversy More Theological Division in the East More Theological Division in the East –Apollinarianism  Apollinaris of Laodicea (ca. 310-90) –Ardent supporter of Athanasius –Taught Jesus did not have a natural human mind/soul – Logos had replaced it –Macedonianism  Holy Spirit not divine! –Not called divine at Nicaea!

19. The Arian Controversy The Great Cappadocians The Great Cappadocians –Athanasius died (373)  leaders of Nicene cause –Clarified Nicene position  God is one ousia, three hypostases –Ousia: essence common to members of species –Hypostasis: individual subsistence of a being  Holy Spirit is divine, to be worshipped with Father and Son  Trinity  Jesus had human mind –He did not redeem what he did not take upon himself

20. The Arian Controversy Council of Constantinople (381) Council of Constantinople (381) –Summoned by Theodosius I (r. 379-395)  Nicene! –Proceedings  Reaffirmed Nicene Creed  Condemned Arianism, Macedonianism, Apollinarianism –Triumph for Nicene party due to theological majority and imperial support –Constantinople now second see of Empire  Offensive to Alexandria

21. The Arian Controversy Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (381) Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (381) –“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made. Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate. He suffered and was buried, and the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits at the Right Hand of the Father. And he shall come again with glory to judge both the quick and the dead. Whose kingdom shall have no end. –And [we believe] in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver-of-Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets. And [we believe] in one, holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. We acknowledge one Baptism for the remission of sins, [and] we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.”

22. The Arian Controversy Questions? Questions?

23. The Nestorian Controversy Context and Question Context and Question –Nicaea I and Constantinople I had affirmed  Divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ  Divinity of Holy Spirit  Trinity –Next question: how do divinity and humanity in Jesus Christ interact?  Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) provided answer…

24. The Nestorian Controversy Cyril of Alexandria Cyril of Alexandria –“Pillar of the Church” –Patriarch of Alexandria (r. 412-444)  Ambitious for see –Wealthy –Would resort to violence, if necessary  Egyptian monks appealed to Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, against him  Nestorius promised to act  Cyril not pleased!

25. The Nestorian Controversy Cyril vs. Nestorius Cyril vs. Nestorius –Cyril found way to disgrace Nestorius theologically –Alexandrian Christology  Cyril’s perspective  “One incarnate nature of the God-Logos” –Antiochene Christology  Nestorius’s perspective  Sharp distinction between divine and human natures of Jesus

26. The Nestorian Controversy Cyril vs. Nestorius Cyril vs. Nestorius –Theotokos  “God-bearing one”  Nestorius rejected this term –God not capable of being born! –Mary gave birth to human Jesus –Suggested Christotokos –Cyril accepted Theotokos  For him, touchstone of orthodoxy  What is said of Christ refers to both divine and human attributes

27. The Nestorian Controversy Cyril vs. Nestorius Cyril vs. Nestorius –Cyril played upon popular devotion to Mary  Dignity of Mother of God is attacked by new heresy!  People were furious –Appealed to Pope Celestine I  Reported Nestorius believed Christ was “two persons”!  Celestine appointed Cyril his “deputy”

28. The Nestorian Controversy The Council of Ephesus The Council of Ephesus –Convened June and July 431 –Antiochene delegates arrived late  Pro-Nestorius –Council started without them –Nestorius excommunicated

29. The Nestorian Controversy The Council of Ephesus The Council of Ephesus –After Antiochenes arrived, convened separate synod –Cyril was condemned –Imperial response: Cyril and Nestorius  imprisoned –Cyril bribed officials  gained support –Nestorius resigned  monastery at Antioch –Cyril escaped  Alexandria  Victory!

30. The Nestorian Controversy Aftermath of Ephesus Aftermath of Ephesus –Antiochenes not pleased, kept controversy going  gained imperial support –Cyril caved in  compromise (433)  Antiochenes must accept resignation and excommunication of Nestorius  Cyril and Alexandrians must accept Christ is “union in two natures” –The Fate of Nestorius (d. ca. 459)  Removed from Antioch, deported to Egyptian desert  Reputation blackened

31. The Nestorian Controversy Questions? Questions?

32. The Monophysite Controversy Eutyches (b. ca. 378) Eutyches (b. ca. 378) –Old archimandrite at Monastery of Job, outside Constantinople –Controversial belief: after incarnation Christ’s “two natures”  “one” (“monophysite”)  Christ’s humanity “absorbed” by deity  Belief concerned Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople –Eutyches asked to come to synod at Constantinople (448)  Went reluctantly  Presented confession of faith, claiming it was harmonious with Nicaea and Ephesus  Ordered to profess Christ had “two natures,” not one  Refused  excommunicated and deprived of priesthood, abbacy

33. The Monophysite Controversy Eutyches Strikes Back! Eutyches Strikes Back! –Set up placards in public –To gain support of Emperor Theodosius II, contacted the grand chamberlain Chrysaphius  Eutyches’s godson and nephew –Appealed to Eastern bishops  Jerusalem  Thessalonika  Alexandria –Dioscorus (r. 444-451)  Staunch supporter  Agenda against Constantinople

34. The Monophysite Controversy Appeals to Latin West (449) Appeals to Latin West (449) –Letter sent to Peter Chrysologus  Grieved to hear of more trouble in the East  Christians should be honoring Christ, not debating his nature!  Submit to Roman see on these matters –Letter sent to Pope Leo I (r. 440-461)  Did not respond to Eutyches

35. The Monophysite Controversy Leo “On the Case” Leo “On the Case” –Flavian sent letter to pope soon after Eutyches –Leo requested more information (February) –Flavian responded (May)  Doctrinal statement from Rome may alleviate trouble! –Leo promised a “fuller response”  Did find Eutyches’s position heretical –Sent Tome (Epistle 28) in June  Accompanied by four legates

36. The Monophysite Controversy Synod at Ephesus (August 449) Synod at Ephesus (August 449) –Convoked by Theodosius II –Proceedings  Dioscorus presided  Roman legates were not allowed to read Tome  Anti-Eutychian attendees were not allowed to vote  Those in favor of Flavian were forced to vote against him –Results  Eutyches was reinstated  Flavian was deposed, imprisoned  died  Dioscorus installed Anatolius as patriarch of Constantinople  Monophysites were victorious!  Leo was outraged: synod a “robbers’ council”!

37. The Monophysite Controversy Pulcheria Affairs in Constantinople Affairs in Constantinople –Influence of Pulcheria  Sister of Theodosius II  Allied with Leo  Had Chrysaphius executed  Exiled Eutyches –Anatolius  Turned on Dioscorus  Defended authority of Constantinople –Marcian (r. 450-57)  Called for ecumenical council

38. The Monophysite Controversy The Council of Chalcedon (October 453) The Council of Chalcedon (October 453) –Leo’s legate presided –Tome was read –Repealed acts of Synod of Ephesus –Dioscorus was deposed –Nestorianism and Eutychianism were condemned –Doctrinal results  Jesus is fully human, fully divine  Jesus is consubstantial with the Father (deity) and humankind (humanity)  TWO NATURES – no confusion! –Each nature is preserved after their union  Jesus is ONE PERSON

39. The Monophysite Controversy Questions? Questions?

40. The Triumph of the Church Recap of Religion in the Roman Empire Recap of Religion in the Roman Empire –Paganism  Options: gods, philosophy, mystery religions  Temples, cults –Honored, protected, and funded by state –Christianity  Exclusive and intolerant of “false gods”  Persecuted under pagan emperors  Constantine converted  launched Christianization of Empire

41. The Triumph of the Church Constantine and Paganism Constantine and Paganism –Recognized majority of population was still pagan  act against it slowly, prudently –Liberties permitted  No forced conversion  No official suppression  Could still own, construct new temples –Actions against  Withheld state funds, except for cults in Rome  State officials may no longer sacrifice before official business  Cult statues, oracles, private divination forbidden

42. The Triumph of the Church Constantine’s Sons Constantine’s Sons –Harsher measures taken –Those caught sacrificing  sword!  Really enforced? –Temples to be closed everywhere  Only carried out in certain locations –Unimportant temples destroyed –Constantius and Altar of Victory (Rome)  Ordered it removed from Senate (357)

43. The Triumph of the Church Julian (r. 361-63) and the Pagan Revival Julian (r. 361-63) and the Pagan Revival –Constantine’s nephew –Educated by Christians –Baptized –Curious about paganism, studied it –Publicly abandoned Christianity 361

44. The Triumph of the Church Julian’s Attempted Restoration of Paganism Julian’s Attempted Restoration of Paganism –Reopened, repaired temples –Restored Altar of Victory –Preached about paganism in Greek East –Systematized paganism  Priestly hierarchy  Catechesis

45. The Triumph of the Church Julian and the Christians Julian and the Christians –Sought to ridicule them! –Wrote Against the Galileans –Did not choose them for civil appointments –Banned them from preaching classics –Considered reconstructing Jewish Temple

46. The Triumph of the Church The Reality The Reality –People no longer excited about paganism –Julian fatally wounded in Persia (363) –“Julian the Apostate”

47. The Triumph of the Church Altar of Victory Controversy (384) Altar of Victory Controversy (384) –Altar again removed from Senate (382) by Gratian I (r. 375-383) –Symmachus petitioned Valentinian II (r. 375-392) for its restoration  Cultural value  “Who is so friendly with the barbarians as not to require an Altar of Victory?”  “It is just that all worship should be considered as one. We look on the same stars, the sky is common, the same world surrounds us. What difference does it make by what pains each seeks the truth?” –Ambrose’s reply  Don’t let them take advantage of your youth  Your duty: honor one true God, not heathen superstition  Honor memory of your brother –Altar never restored

48. The Triumph of the Church Theodosius I (379-395) Theodosius I (379-395) –Laws of 391-92  All pagan sacrifice is TREASON  Fines imposed on temple worshippers or shrines  Acts of pagan religion  confiscation of property where performed –Christianity now state religion (380)

49. The Triumph of the Church The Fading of Paganism The Fading of Paganism –Alexandrian temples  Temple to city’s genius  tavern!  Temple to Serapis dismantled –Last oracle at Delphi given to Julian –Olympian games discontinued (393) –Image of Zeus removed from Olympia –The Parthenon, Athens  Became church to Virgin Mary  Image of Athena carried off Athena Parthenos (438 BC)

50. The Triumph of the Church Last Bastions of Paganism Last Bastions of Paganism –By fifth century, many commoners converted to Christianity –Cultured pagans were last resistance  Symmachus, et al., in Rome  Platonic Academy, Athens  Neo-Platonists, Alexandria –By Early Middle Ages, paganism lost battle against Christianity

51. The Triumph of the Church Questions? Questions?

52. The Triumph of the Church Christianity and the Roman State Christianity and the Roman State –State now guardian and protector of “true religion” –Emperors called councils –Emperor was petitioned in ecclesiastical crises –State punished heresy, etc.

53. The Triumph of the Church Church and State in the Greek East Church and State in the Greek East –Church’s belief: emperor should be orthodox  If not  resistance –Greek society: Church and state were unified and harmonious  Emperor was earthly counterpart of “Divine Monarch” –Relationship between Greek emperor and bishops  Left bishops to their own affairs  But involved with ecclesiastical affairs in Constantinople

54. The Triumph of the Church Church and State in the Latin West Church and State in the Latin West –State and Church cooperated –Became more “dualistic”  State had its own sphere  Church had its own sphere –Ambrose of Milan  Sought to protect Church’s independence  Held emperors “accountable”

55. The Triumph of the Church Ambrose and the Church’s Independence Ambrose and the Church’s Independence –Arian Controversy in Milan (385-86)  Empress Justina was Arian  Valentinian II was pro-Arian  Ambrose was Nicene –Emperor requested Portian Basilica for Arian worship –Ambrose refused –Imperial troops besieged Ambrose’s church

56. The Triumph of the Church Ambrose’s Response Ambrose’s Response –“It is neither lawful for me to hand [the basilica] over nor proper for you, O Emperor, to accept it. Under no law may you violate the house of a private person. Do you think that you may seize the house of God? It is alleged that everything is permitted to the emperor and that all things are his. I reply: Do not so burden yourself, O Emperor, as to believe that you have any imperial right to those things that are divine…The palaces belong to the emperor, the churches to the bishop…” (Letter 20.19)  Emperor is a “son of the Church” –In the Church, not above it! –Arians never got their church

57. The Triumph of the Church Episode at Callinicum (388) Episode at Callinicum (388) –Monks set fire to synagogue –Theodosius was enraged  Breach of public peace!  Guilty party must rebuild at its own expense! –Ambrose was disgusted  Those people are cursed by God!  Obligations of faith go before the law!  Revoke order for restitution!  Would not perform sacraments until Theodosius submitted –Theodosius yielded

58. The Triumph of the Church Massacre at Thessalonika (390) Massacre at Thessalonika (390) –Thessalonians rioted –Theodosius sought “justice”  Lured thousands into public theater  slaughtered –Ambrose threatened excommunication  Demanded Theodosius do penance –Theodosius willingly consented

59. The Triumph of the Church Questions? Questions?

60. Primary Source Athanasius’s First Discourse against the Arians Athanasius’s First Discourse against the Arians –Initial reactions? –What is the tone of this writing? –According to Athanasius, what had Arius taught that was heretical? –How did Athanasius argue against Arianism?

61. Primary Source Leo the Great’s Tome Leo the Great’s Tome –Initial reactions? –What did Leo think of Eutyches, according to this document? –For Leo, what sources could be considered authoritative for Christians, doctrinally speaking? How do we know? –What were some of the ways Leo argued for Christ’s two natures being preserved after the Incarnation?