1. Language & Nation

2. Countries contain linguistic minorities –Where linguistic minorities are large they are more influential –Where linguistic minorities are small they are less influential.

3. Attitudes Individual and societal attitude towards different language varieties. Favorability and nonfavorability of language.

4. Pakistani languages (Source: Census 2001: 107) Languages Punjabi Pashto Sindhi Siraiki Urdu Balochi Other Percentage of speakers 44.15 15.42 14.10 10.53 7.57 3.57 4.66

5. Power Enables one to impose ones will directly or indirectly over others or resist the imposition of other people’s will.

6. Domains 1.Domain of Power 2.Domain of culture research or ideology 3.Domain of private interaction

7. Language & power struggle Language Controversies –Minorities vs majorities –Elite vs underprivileged

8. The Vernacular- English Controversy Rationale for vernacularization Support for vernaculars for education Economic & social incentives for learning English Making of westernized Indian elites

9. Identity based on ethnicity Relative term Based on Brotherhood Occupation Tribe etc Ethnicity based on language

10. The Urdu-Hindi Controversy Birth of modern Hindi or Sanskritization Birth & development of controversy The final Seperation

11. The Bengali- Urdu Controversy Bengali identity Demand for Bengali in East Pakistan Recognition of Bengali language as a state language in 1952.

12. The Sindhi-Urdu Controversy “Apart from the riots, people’s real conduct remains pragmatic. The mohajirs, knowing that they can get by without learning Sindhi, do not learn it except in rural areas where it is necessary for them. The Sindhis, again because they know they cannot get by without learning Urdu, do learn it.” (Rahman 2002:Chapter 10)

13. “When people learn language for pragmatic reasons, what happens is that market conditions are such that one’s language becomes a deficit in relation to ‘cultural capital’. Instead of being an asset it becomes a liability. It prevents one form rising in society.” (Nettle & Romaine, 2000; Bourdieu, 1991; Rahman, 2002)

14. Solution to problems of societal multilingualism Political independence/ semi- independence Adequate educational programmes and policies

15. Solution to Pakistan’s problem Need for change in market conditions. Promotion oriented projects for our language to be encouraged. Additive bilingualism to be promoted.