1. Theories of Development
Chapter Two:
Theories of Development
PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College

2. What Theories Do
Developmental theory—systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for studying development

3. What Theories Do, cont. Theories
form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by research studies
formulating right question is more difficult that finding right answers
generate discoveries
offer insight and guidance by providing coherent view

4. What Theories Do, cont. Different Types
grand theories—comprehensive, traditional theories
originated in psychology
minitheories—theories that focus on specific area of development
originated more in sociology through study of social groups and family structures
emergent theories—new, comprehensive groupings of minitheories
multidisciplinary approach includes historic events and genetic discoveries

5. Grand Theories
Grand Theories—powerful framework for interpreting and understanding change and development that applies to all individuals in all contexts, across all contents

7. Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory interprets human development in terms of motives and drives

8. Freud’s Ideas Sigmund Freud
Three stages of development in first six years
oral, anal, phallic
in early childhood, latency and then adolescence, genital
each stage includes potential conflicts
how a person experiences and resolves conflicts determines personality and patterns of behavior

9. Erikson’s Ideas
Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8 developmental stages, each characterized by a developmental crisis
trust vs. mistrust
autonomy vs. shame
initiative vs. guilt
industry vs. inferiority
identity vs. role diffusion
intimacy vs. isolation
generativity vs. stagnation
integrity vs. despair

11. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and processes by which behavior is learned
focus: ways we learn specific behaviors that can be described, analyzed, and predicted with scientific accuracy

12. Laws of Behavior Conditioning—any process in which behavior is learned
Classical conditioning—Ivan Pavlov
process by which a neutral stimulus become associated with a meaningful stimulus
stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
Operant conditioning—B. F. Skinner
process by which a response is gradually learned via reinforcement or punishment
also called instrumental conditioning

14. Social Learning
Extension of learning theory that includes modeling which involves people observing behavior and patterning their own after it
Modeling
process in which people observe, then copy behavior
Alfred Bandura—most likely to occur if model is admired or observer is inexperienced
self-efficacy motivates people to change themselves and their contexts

15. Cognitive Theory
Focuses on the structure and development of thought processes, which shape perceptions, attitudes, and actions.
Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages
sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational

16. Cognitive Theory, cont. Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental balance
Cognitive adaptation—assimilation, accommodation of ideas

19. Mini-theories: examples
Attachment theory (Ainsworth)
Disengagement theory
Activity theory

20. Emergent Theories
Emergent theories arise from several accumulated minitheories and may be the new systematic and comprehensive theories of the future

21. Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky
Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure supplied by the society
human development is the result of dynamic interaction of the developing persons and their surrounding culture

22. Guided Participation
Guided participation—tutor engages learner in joint activities, providing instruction and direct involvement in learning
Apprenticeship in thinking—mentor provides instruction and support needed by novice

23. The Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of proximal development—range of skills learner can perform with assistance but not independently
learner is drawn into learning by teacher
Cultural variations: Basic principles are universal, but skills, challenges, and opportunities vary from culture to culture, depending on the values and structures of the culture’s society

25. Epigenetic Theory
Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment—the newest developmental theory
stresses that we have powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage. Timing and pace of certain developmental changes are genetically guided
performism—everything is set in advance by genes and then is gradually manifested in the course of maturation

26. With, On, and Around the Genes
Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up the particular genes that cause each person to be unique
each human has a genetic foundation that is unique
epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage

27. With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.
Epi = with, around, before, after, on, or near = surrounding factors
epigenetic—surrounding factors that affect expression of genetic instructions
some surrounding factors may be stress factors; others may be facilitating factors
Genetic-environmental Interactions
genes never function alone

28. Genetic Adaptation Adaptation of the Genes
selective adaptation means that genes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely

29. What Theories Can Contribute
Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of importance of early childhood experiences
Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate environment on learning
Cognitive theory helps us understand how intellectual process and thinking affect actions

30. What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
Sociocultural theory has reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted context
Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between inherited forces and immediate contexts

32. What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
Eclectic perspective
approach taken by most developmentalists in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories rather than staying with just one

33. The Nature-Nurture Controversy
Is it heredity or environment that shapes us?
How much is a result of any given characteristics, behavior or pattern of development is a result of genes and how much is a result of experiences
Policy and practice: nature/nurture theories are implicit in many public policies

34. Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality
AD/HD and homosexuality—How and to what extent are nature and nurture involved in each case?
Evidence from AD/HD research that it can come from either

35. Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality, cont.
Earlier assumptions about homosexuality: more nurture than nature. As hypotheses tested, nurture was revealed as less crucial
sexual orientation may be a matter of nature
sexual expression may be a matter of cultural attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation
evidence supporting nature as main factor (e.g., affect of genetic linkage, prenatal hormones)

36. Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality, cont.
Ideology often adds to complexity and polarization of opinions on many subjects when nature and nurture are considered
Important to separate assumptions from facts
done via research and testing of hypotheses