1. Chapter 10 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

2. Objectives   1. Contrast asexual and sexual types of reproduction that occur on the cellular and multicellular or­ganism levels.   2.Understand the effect that meiosis has on chromosome number.   3.Describe the events that occur in each meiotic phase.  

3. Objectives   4.Compare mitosis and meiosis; cite similarities and differences.   5.Contrast meiosis in plant and animal life cycles.

4.  Asexual reproduction is easier and faster  One parent alone transmits genetic information to offspring. (all clones)  Sexual reproduction can be an alternative adaption in changing environments. (survival)  Male and female must find each other and exchange genetic material. 10.0 Why Sex

5.  Sexual reproduction has advantages when other organisms change. (Predators and prey, Hosts and pathogens)  The outcome of sexual reproduction is offspring that display novel combinations of traits.(diversity) Why Sex Why Sex

6. 10.1 Alleles and Sexual Reproduction 10.1 Alleles and Sexual Reproduction  Sexual Reproduction involves Meiosis Meiosis Gamete production Gamete production Fertilization Fertilization  Produces genetic variation among offspring

7. Introducing Alleles Introducing Alleles  Allele – each unique molecular form of the same gene.  Such tiny differences affect thousands of traits.  Alleles are one reason why individuals do not all look alike.  Sexual reproduction leads to new alleles

8. Homologous Chromosomes Carry Different Alleles  Cell has two of each chromosome  One chromosome in each pair from mother, other from father  Paternal and maternal chromosomes carry different alleles

9. Fig. 10-2, p.156 Homologous Chromosomes

10. Sexual Reproduction Shuffles Alleles  Through sexual reproduction, offspring inherit new combinations of alleles, which leads to variations in traits  This variation in traits is the basis for evolutionary change

11. Alleles

12. Section 10.2: What Meiosis Does   Meiosis is a nuclear division process that divides a parental chromosome number by half in specialized reproductive cells.   Sexual reproduction will not work without it.   Unlike mitosis, meiosis sorts out chromosomes into parcels two times.

13. Germ cells undergo meiosis and cytoplasmic division  Meiosis involves only the sex cells.  Cellular descendents of germ cells become gametes, (sperm and egg)  Gametes meet at fertilization

14. Fig. 10-3, p.156

15. Chromosome Number  Sum total of chromosomes in a cell  Germ cells are diploid (2n), they have a pair of each type of chromosome. We call them homologous chromosomes.  Gametes are haploid (n)  Meiosis halves parental chromosome number

16. Meiosis: Two Divisions  Two consecutive nuclear divisions Meiosis I Meiosis I Meiosis II Meiosis II  DNA is not duplicated between divisions – NO Interphase  Four haploid nuclei form

17. Meiosis I – Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I Each homologue (matching chromosome) in the cell pairs with its partner, then the partners separate p. 158

18. Meiosis II - Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II  The two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome are separated from each other one chromosome (duplicated) two chromosomes (unduplicated) p. 158

19. 10.3 Meiosis I -Prophase I  Each duplicated chromosome pairs with homologue  Homologues swap segments (crossing over).  Each chromosome becomes attached to spindle Fig. 10-5, p. 158

20. Metaphase I  Chromosomes are pushed and pulled into the middle of cell by microtubules  The spindle is fully formed Fig. 10-5, p. 158

21. Anaphase I  Homologous chromosomes separate and begin to move toward pole.  The sister chromatids remain attached Fig. 10-5, p. 158

22. Telophase I  The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles  Usually followed by cytoplasmic division.  Now have two haploid cells (n).  Chromosomes are still duplicated. Fig. 10-5, p. 158

23. Prophase II  In each daughter cell microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the duplicated chromosomes.  One chromatid of each chromosome becomes tethered to one spindle pole. Fig. 10-5, p. 158

24. Metaphase II  In each daughter cell duplicated chromosomes line up at the spindle equator, midway between the poles Fig. 10-5, p. 158

25. Anaphase II II  In each daughter cell sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles to become independent chromosomes. Fig. 10-5, p. 158

26. Telophase II II  The chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell  A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes, each cell divides in half.  Four haploid (n) cells. Fig. 10-5, p. 158

27. Section 10.4: How Meiosis Introduces Variations in Traits   Crossing over – a molecular interaction between a chromatid of one chromosome and a chromatid of the homologous partner.   This really is gene swapping.

28. Crossing Over During Prophase I each chromosome becomes zippered to its homologue All four chromatids are closely aligned Nonsister chromosomes exchange segments

29. Effect of Crossing Over  After crossing over, each chromosome contains both maternal and paternal segments  Breaks up old combinations of alleles and creates new allele combinations in offspring

30. Random Alignment  During transition between prophase I and metaphase I, microtubules from spindle poles attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.  Initial contacts between microtubules and chromosomes are random, there is no particular pattern to the metaphase position of chromosomes.

31. Random Alignment  Either the maternal or paternal member of a homologous pair can end up at either pole. This can also lead to different traits in each new generation.  The chromosomes in a gamete are a mix of chromosomes from the two parents.

32. Possible Chromosome Combinations As a result of random alignment, the number of possible combinations of chromosomes in a gamete is: 2 n (n is number of chromosome types)

33. Possible Chromosome Combinations  Thus, every time a human sperm or egg forms, there is a total of 8,388,608 or  2 23  Possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes.

34. Section 10.5: From Gametes to Offspring   The life cycle of most plant species alternates between sporophyte and gametophyte stages.   A sporophyte is a spore producing body that makes spores by the process of meiosis.   A spore is a haploid reproductive cell that undergoes mitosis and gives rise to a gametophyte.   A gametophyte gives rise to gametes, which can then be fertilized and form the zygote.

35. sporophyte meiosis diploid fertilization zygote gametes gametophytes spores haploid Fig. 10-8a, p.162 Plant Life Cycle

36. Gamete formation in animals  In the male reproductive system, a germ cell develops into four haploid cells, each becoming a sperm.  In the female reproductive system, a germ cells develops into one haploid ovum, or egg, and three polar bodies. The polar bodies eventually degenerate.  When fertilization occurs the diploid number is restored.

37. multicelled body meiosis diploid fertilization zygote gametes haploid Fig. 10-8b, p.162 Animal Life Cycle

38. Fertilization  Male and female gametes unite and nuclei fuse  Fusion of two haploid nuclei produces diploid nucleus in the zygote  Which two gametes unite is random Adds to variation among offspring Adds to variation among offspring

39. Factors Contributing to Variation among Offspring  Crossing over during prophase I (average of 2 or 3 in every human chromosome)  Random alignment of chromosomes at metaphase I  Random combination of gametes at fertilization

40. Mitosis  Functions Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Growth, repair Growth, repair  Occurs in somatic cells  Produces clones 10.6 Mitosis & Meiosis Compared 10.6 Mitosis & Meiosis Compared Meiosis  Function Sexual reproduction  Occurs in germ cells  Produces variable offspring

41. Prophase vs. Prophase I  Prophase (Mitosis) Homologous pairs do not interact with each other Homologous pairs do not interact with each other  Prophase I (Meiosis) Homologous pairs become zippered together and crossing over occurs Homologous pairs become zippered together and crossing over occurs

42. Anaphase, Anaphase I, and Anaphase II Anaphase, Anaphase I, and Anaphase II  Anaphase I (Meiosis) Homologous chromosomes separate from each other Homologous chromosomes separate from each other  Anaphase/Anaphase II (Mitosis/Meiosis) Sister chromatids of a chromosome separate from each other Sister chromatids of a chromosome separate from each other

43. Results of Mitosis and Meiosis  Mitosis Two diploid cells produced Two diploid cells produced Each identical to parent Each identical to parent  Meiosis Four haploid cells produced Four haploid cells produced Differ from parent and one another Differ from parent and one another

44. Repair of DNA breaks  Checkpoint genes code for proteins that can recognize and repair breaks in the double-stranded DNA molecules of chromosomes.  If they detect a problem, there is a pause in the cycle until the DNA is repaired.

45. Review of Meiosis http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/ch apter12/animations.html# http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/ch apter12/animations.html#

46. An Ancestral Connection  Was sexual reproduction a giant evolutionary step from aseuxal reproduction?  Giardia intestinalis – single-celled parasite, does not have a mitochondria, does not form a spindle during mitosis, and has never been observed to reproduce sexually.  Chlamydomonas – a single-celled alga, haploid cells reproduce asexually by mitosis. They can also fuse and form diploid individuals.