1. 28 28-1 Organic Chemistry William H. Brown & Christopher S. Foote

2. 28 28-2 Nucleic Acids Chapter 28

3. 28 28-3 Nucleic Acids  Nucleic acid:  Nucleic acid: a biopolymer containing three types of monomer units heterocyclic aromatic amine bases derived from purine and pyrimidine the monosaccharides D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose phosphoric acid  Following are names and one-letter abbreviations for the heterocyclic aromatic amine bases most common to nucleic acids

4. 28 28-4 Purine/Pyrimidine Bases

5. 28 28-5 Nucleosides  Nucleoside:  Nucleoside: a building block of nucleic acids, consisting of D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose bonded to a heterocyclic aromatic amine base by a  -glycosidic bond

6. 28 28-6 Nucleotides  Nucleotide:  Nucleotide: a nucleoside in which a molecule of phosphoric acid is esterified with an -OH of the monosaccharide,

7. 28 28-7 Nucleotides Example 28.1 Example 28.1 identify these nucleotides

8. 28 28-8 Acyclovir & AZT

9. 28 28-9 DNA - 1° Structure  Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) a backbone of alternating units of 2-deoxy-D-ribose and phosphate in which the 3’-OH of one 2-deoxy-D- ribose is joined by a phosphodiester bond to the 5’- OH of another 2-deoxy-D-ribose unit  Primary Structure:  Primary Structure: the sequence of bases along the pentose-phosphodiester backbone of a DNA molecule (or an RNA molecule) read from the 5’ end to the 3’ end

10. 28 28-10 DNA - 1° Structure

11. 28 28-11 DNA - 2° Structure  Secondary structure:  Secondary structure: the ordered arrangement of nucleic acid strands  The double helix model of DNA 2° structure was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953  Double helix:  Double helix: a type of 2° structure of DNA molecules in which two antiparallel polynucleotide strands are coiled in a right- handed manner about the same axis

12. 28 28-12 T-A Base Pairing  A major factor stabilizing the double helix

13. 28 28-13 C-G Base Pairing

14. 28 28-14 Forms of DNA  B-DNA the predominant form in dilute aqueous solution a right-handed helix 2000 pm thick with 3400 pm per ten base pairs minor groove of 1200pm and major groove of 2200 pm  A-DNA a right-handed helix, but thicker than B-DNA 2900 pm per 10 base pairs  Z-DNA a left-handed double helix

15. 28 28-15 DNA - 3° Structure  Tertiary structure:  Tertiary structure: the three-dimensional arrangement of all atoms of nucleic acid, commonly referred as supercoiling  Circular DNA:  Circular DNA: a type of double-stranded DNA in which the 5’ and 3’ ends of each stand are joined by phosphodiester bonds (Fig 28.10)  Histone:  Histone: a protein, particularly rich in the basic amino acids lysine and arginine, that is found associated with DNA molecules

16. 28 28-16 DNA - 3° Structure  Chromatin:  Chromatin: consists of DNA molecules wound around particles of histones in a beadlike structure further coiling produces the dense chromatin found in nuclei of plant and animal cells

17. 28 28-17 Ribonucleic Acids (RNA)  RNA are similar to DNA in that they, too, consist of long, unbranched chains of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester groups between the 3’-OH of one pentose and the 5’-OH of the next. However, the pentose unit in RNA is  -D-ribose rather than  - 2-deoxy-D-ribose the pyrimidine bases in RNA are uracil and cytosine rather than thymine and cytosine RNA is single stranded rather than double stranded

18. 28 28-18 RNA  RNA molecules are classified according to their structure and function  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a ribonucleic acid found in ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis

19. 28 28-19 RNA  Transfer RNA (tRNA):  Transfer RNA (tRNA): a ribonucleic acid that carries a specific amino acid to the site of protein synthesis on ribosomes

20. 28 28-20 RNA  Messenger RNA (mRNA):  Messenger RNA (mRNA): a ribonucleic acid that carries coded genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for the synthesis of proteins present in cells in relatively small amounts and very short-lived single stranded their synthesis is directed by information encoded on DNA a complementary strand of mRNA is synthesized along one strand of an unwound DNA, starting from the 3’ end

21. 28 28-21 RNA the synthesis of mRNA from DNA is called transcription

22. 28 28-22 The Genetic Code

23. 28 28-23 The Genetic Code  Properties of the Code only 61 triplets code for amino acids; the remaining 3 (UAA, UAG, and UGA) signal chain termination the code is degenerate, which means that several amino acids are coded for by more than one triplet. Leu, Ser, and Arg, for example, are each coded for by six triplets for the 15 amino acids coded for by 2, 3, or 4 triplets, it is only the third letter of the codon that varies. Gly, for example, is coded for by GGA, GGG, GGC, and GGU there is no ambiguity in the code; each triplet codes for one and only one amino acid

24. 28 28-24 Sequencing DNA  Restriction endonuclease:  Restriction endonuclease: an enzyme that catalyzes hydrolysis of a particular phosphodiester bond within a DNA strand over 1000 endonucleases have been isolated and their specificities determined typically they recognize a set sequence of nucleotides and cleave the DNA at or near that particular sequence EcoRI from E. coli, for example, cleaves as shown

25. 28 28-25 Sequencing DNA following are several more examples of endonucleases and their specificities

26. 28 28-26 Sequencing DNA  Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis:  Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis: a technique so sensitive that it is possible to separate nucleic acid fragments differing from one another in only a single nucleotide Maxam-Gilbert method:Maxam-Gilbert method: a method developed by Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert; depends on base-specific chemical cleavage Dideoxy chain termination method:Dideoxy chain termination method: developed by Frederick Sanger Gilbert and Sanger shared the 1980 Nobel prize for biochemistry for their “development of chemical and biochemical analysis of DNA structure.”

27. 28 28-27 Replication in Vitro During replication, the sequence of nucleotides in one strand is copied as a complementary strand to form the second strand of a double-stranded DNA Synthesis is catalyzed by DNA polymerase DNA polymerase will catalyze synthesis in vitro using single-stranded DNA as a template, provided that (1) the four deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) monomers and (2) a primer are present Primer: Primer: an oligonucleotide capable of forming a short section of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) by base- pairing with its complement on a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)

28. 28 28-28 Replication in Vitro Because a new DNA strand grows from its 5' to 3' end, the primer must have a free 3'-OH group to which the first nucleotide of the growing chain is added

29. 28 28-29 Dideoxy Chain Termination the key to the chain termination method is addition to the synthesizing medium of a 2’,3’-dideoxynucleotide triphosphate (ddNTP) because a ddNTP has no 3’-OH, chain synthesis is terminated where a ddNTP becomes incorporated

30. 28 28-30 Dideoxy Chain Termination In this method, the following are mixed single-stranded DNA of unknown sequence and primer; then divided into four reaction mixtures  To each reaction mixture is then added the four dNTP, one of which is labeled in the 5’ end with phosphorus-32 DNA polymerase one of the four ddNTPs

31. 28 28-31 Dideoxy Chain Termination after gel electrophoresis of each reaction mixture a piece of film is placed over the gel gamma rays released by P-32 darken the film and create a pattern of the resolved oligonucleotide the base sequence of the complement to the original strand is read directly from bottom to top of the developed film

32. 28 28-32 Dideoxy Chain Termination

33. 28 28-33 Prob 28.8 Draw structural formulas for the enethiol (the sulfur equivalent of an enol) forms of each antimetabolite used in the treatment of certain types of cancer.

34. 28 28-34 Prob 28.9 Draw two additional tautomers for cytosine and three additional tautomers for thymine.

35. 28 28-35 Nucleic Acids End Chapter 28