1. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 17 Exercise Psychological Measurement

2. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 17 Outline Psychological Constructs Measuring Attitudes Psychological Determinants of Physical Activity Eating Disorders Body Image Psychophysical Ratings

3. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Constructs Many different classes, or categories, of psychological constructs Summarized by Ostrow (1996), with description of over 300 instruments Detailed description of source, purpose, test construction, reliability and validity evidence, norms, contact information

4. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Constructs Ostrow provided 20 categories:  Achievement orientation  Aggression  Anxiety  Attention  Attitudes (towards exercise and physical activity)  Attitudes (towards sport)  Attributions

5. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Constructs Ostrow provided 20 categories (continued):  Body image  Cognitive strategies  Cohesion  Confidence (exercise)  Confidence (sport)  Imagery  Leadership  Life adjustment

6. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Constructs Ostrow provided 20 categories (continued):  Locus of control  Miscellaneous (variety of specific constructs)  Motivation (exercise)  Motivation (sport)  Multidimensional (measure multiple constructs in one instrument)

7. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Directory of Psychological Measurements (LeUnes 2002) Measures of enduring traits (e.g., aggression, burnout, easting disorders) Measures of temporary traits (e.g., anxiety, depression) Sport-specific measures (aggression, motivation, self-efficacy) Measures of response tendencies

8. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Measuring Attitudes “...feelings about particular social objects- physical objects, types of people, particular persons, social institutions, government policies” (Nunnally, 1978) Response usually is a Disagree - Agree continuum Usually range from 2 to 7 response options Some (negatively-worded) items should be reverse-scored when entering data

9. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Attitude Towards Physical Activity ATPA (Kenyon, 1968) Assesses motives for engaging in physical activity 6 dimensions (6 subscales) Dimensions are independent (subscale scores should not be added together to make a total score)

10. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. ATPA Subscales Social experience  to meet people and maintain friendships Health and fitness  to maintain or improve health and fitness Vertigo  to experience element of thrill Aesthetic  to experience beauty or artistry of movement Catharsis  to release tensions of daily living Ascetic  to experience strenuousness or pain associated with training or competition

11. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Semantic Differential Scales Series of bipolar adjectives (e.g., pleasant/unpleasant, hard/soft, fast/slow) Stimulus provided (e.g., “physical activity”, “physical education class”), to which subject responds via biploar adjectives Three semantic dimensions  evaluative (e.g., good/bad)  potency (e.g., strong/weak)  activity (e.g., hot/cold)

12. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Semantic Differential Scales Scored on a 5 to 7 point scale Some adjective pairs should be reversed, to check for response set Reverse-worded pairs should be reverse scored

13. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Example Item from CATPA-I

14. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Determinants of Physical Activity Important to assess determinants of physical activity Public health benefits of physical activity promotion Adherence to exercise programs is generally low Dropout rate of 50% (Dishman, 1990)

15. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Determinants of Physical Activity Dishman, 1990:  Smoking behavior  Occupational level  Body composition  Exercise history  Self-motivation  Knowledge of health benefits  Positive affect  Perceived efficacy

16. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Self-Motivation Inventory SMI (Dishman and Ickes, 1981), 40-item, 10 subscale questionnaire Reduced to 35-item, 6 factor scale by Merkle (1997) Six subscales:  Commitment  Lethargy  Drive  Persistence  Reliability  Discipline

17. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Physical Estimation and Attraction Scale PEAS (Sonstroem, 1974) 33 Estimation items (assess perceptions of one’s own physical abilities) e.g., “It is difficult for me to catch a thrown ball” 54 Attraction items (assess one’s interest in or attraction to physical activity) e.g., “I love to run” 2 items assess social aspect of physical activity, and 11 “neutral” items (help to mask the intent of the questionnaire)

18. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Disorders Prevalent in young women Complex etiology and pattern of behaviors Unhealthy eating or purging habits Often in response to perceived societal expectations regarding body weight and attractiveness Binge eating Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa

19. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa  drive for thinness  dietary restriction  20% mortality rate Bulimia nervosa  binging (excessive caloric intake)  purging (vomiting, use of laxatives)

20. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) Comprehensive scale (64 items) Intended for clinical use (by psychology professionals) Eight subscales:  Drive for thinness  Bulimia  Body dissatisfaction  Ineffectiveness  Perfectionism  Interpersonal distrust  Interoceptive awareness  Maturity fears

21. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) Widely used Originally 40 statement items, describing behaviors (e.g., “I eat diet foods”) Likert response (Never... Always) Reduced to 26 items by Garner (1982) High correlation between 26-item and 40- item versions (r = 0.97)

22. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) Factor analysis on 800 young female Israelis resulted in 4-factor structure Four subscales:  Dieting (“I engage in dieting behavior”)  Oral control (“I enjoy eating new and rich foods”)  Awareness of food content (“I avoid foods with sugar in them”)  Food preoccupation (“I feel that food controls my life”)

23. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) Shortened version (10 items) developed on 2300 students at University of Houston Four factors structure Percentile norms available

24. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. EAT Norms (Univ. of Houston) Percentile Risk Level WomenMen 90High4142 75 Above average 3331 50Average2318 25 Below average 1613 10Low1211

25. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Body Image Complex, multidimensional construct Many instruments exist, seemingly measuring different constructs Body image disturbances may contribute to eating disorders Body image may be a determinant and/or outcome of physical activity, exercise behaviors

26. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The Nature of Body Image “... the picture of our own body which we form in our mind” (Schilder, 1950) Can be broadly divided into two major components –Sensory-perceptual: accuracy with which we perceive our body size, shape, dimensions –Cognitive-affective: thoughts and feelings associated with our bodies

27. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Measuring Body Image Most widely used methods:  Silhouette figure ratings  Questionnaires Other methods:  Image distortion  Photograph ratings  Body width estimation (e.g., via light beams, paper and pencil, open door)

28. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Silhouette Figure Ratings Mostly used to measure body satisfaction Present figure silhouettes of ascending size Subject provides two ratings (on separate sheets):  Self (actual body size/shape)  Ideal (preferred body size/shape) Self-Ideal score reflects body satisfaction (larger score means greater dissatisfaction) Other instruction sets (size preferred by opposite sex, etc.)

29. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Body Image Questionnaires Most commonly used method Many questionnaires exist Some measure broad, multidimensional construct Some measure more specific dimensions of body image (e.g., body satisfaction, body esteem, social physique anxiety)

30. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Body-Self Relations Questionnaire Most commonly used questionnaire Has changed form Currently a 54-item, 7-subscale structure is usually used –Appearance Evaluation (7 items) –Appearance Orientation (12 items) –Health Evaluation (6 items) –Health Orientation (8 items) –Fitness Evaluation (3 items) –Fitness Orientation (13 items) –Illness Awareness (5 items)

31. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychophysical Ratings Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) Used during exercise evaluation Two RPE scales (Borg, 1962, 1972):  6-20 scale (linear)  0-10 scale (nonlinear/ratio) Scales have been used for rating exertion during aerobic exercise (whole body or localized muscular), and exertion during strength/lifting

32. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Rating of Perceived Exertion Can be used for exercise testing, or for prescription Useful for determining exercise intensity, especially when maximal heart rate is unknown Use of RPE for prescription requires training participant to reproduce specific intensity Can also be used for rating work difficulty, injury prevention during strenuous work

33. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Formative Evaluation of Chapter Objectives Evaluate the validity of physical education attitude scales. Outline the procedures used to develop semantic differential scales. Describe the nature of the Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI). Describe the nature of instruments designed to relate exercise and self-esteem. Describe the nature of eating disorder scales. Describe the nature of body image instruments. Evaluate the validity and value of the psychophysical rating of perceived exertion scales (RPE).

34. © McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 17 Exercise Psychological Measurement