1. Governing Metropolitan Areas Oct. 25

2. Two-Tier Metropolitan Government “The basic theory of two-tier metropolitan government is simple: a metropolitan level of government is established for those functions of local government that require a metropolitan-level solution, usually metropolitan-wide and-use planning and major intermunicipal physical infrastructure; local municipalities remain in place to provide such local-level services as zoning and recreational facilities” (Sancton, 2005: 321).

3. Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto “two-tier metropolitan government in Canada was pioneered in Canada” (Sancton, 2005: 319). The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto came into existence in 1954. “Metro and its constituent municipalities became the textbook example of successful two-tier system” (Sancton, 2005: 321). “Since the 1950s, the Toronto region has been in the center of attention for students of urban affairs from around the world. The two-tier system of municipal government, which was typical for Toronto, was first introduced in 1953 and became the basis for the widely used moniker ‘the city that works’” (Boudreau et al., 2006: 31).

4. Metro Toronto “combined a metropolitan level of government responsible for various local welfare state and collective consumption services with a number of local municipalities that had retained autonomy in many areas of municipal concern including fire and waste disposal services as well as water” (Boudreau et al., 2006: 31). Initially, 20 local municipalities included with Metro Toronto. Initially, Metro council comprised of appointed local councillors, but in 1968 switched to elected Metro councillors.

5. Metro Toronto Metro helped manage postwar growth and infrastructure development in the postwar period. The provincial government…saw the opportunity…to use the exploding and rich tax base of the job-rich central city to subsidize development in the suburban areas” (Boudreau et al., 2006: 32).

6. Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto Challenges of the 1970s: Suburban growth surpassed the population of city of Toronto, and suburbs resisted paying for renewal of central Toronto infrastructure. Growth was now occurring beyond borders of Metro Toronto, but borders remained same. Jurisdictional battles were emerging between the city and metro levels. Appeared dysfunctional.

7. Amalgamation of Toronto, 1998 “The primary stated purpose…was to save money…the controversial amalgamation had nothing to do with metropolitan governance” (Sancton, 2005: 322). “All the difficult issues associated with metropolitan growth were taking place outside the new city’s borders” (Sancton, 2005: 322). “did absolutely nothing to address problems of metropolitan governance for the larger Toronto area” (Sancton, 2005: 325).

8. Toronto City Summit Alliance In 2002, “a business-led group…emerged to attempt to provide some leadership with respect to city-region issues” (Sancton, 2005: 325). The chairs of the Summit were Elyse Allan, then President and CEO of The Toronto Board of Trade; Hon. David Crombie, President and CEO of the Canadian Urban Institute; Frances Lankin, President and CEO of United Way; and John Tory, President and CEO of Roger Cable. The City Summit was financed by the private sector; fund-raising efforts were led by Courtney Pratt, President and CEO of Toronto Hydro Corporation” (Boudreau, 2006: 37).

9. Toronto City Summit Alliance “published a policy document in April 2003 entitled Enough Talk: An Action Plan for the Toronto Region, which summarizes the policy objectives of the alliance as: (1) a new fiscal deal for cities, (2) improvement of the physical infrastructure, especially regional transportation and the waterfront, (3) reviving tourism in Toronto, (4) creating a world-leading research alliance, (5) investing in people’s education, (6) integrating immigrants into the economy, (7) strengthening social and community infrastructure, especially affordable housing and community services, and (8) supporting arts and culture.” (Boudreau, 2006: 37).

10. Civic Action Toronto City Summit Alliance renamed Civic Action (Greater Toronto CivicAction Alliance) in 2010 http://www.civicaction.ca

11. Regional Municipalities in the GTA Halton (Burlington, Oakville, Halton Hills, Milton,) Halton Peel (Mississauga, Brampton, Caledon) Peel York (includes Markham, Vaughan, Richmond Hill, Newmarket, Georgina, Aurora) York Durham (Oshawa, Whitby, Pickering, Ajax, Clarington) Durham

12. Regional Governance in the GTA There is a lack of institutional structures to provide governance (and coordinate policy and planning) over the entire GTA, let alone the entire Golden Horseshoe.