1. Biology 12

2. Organisms need nutrients Nutrients provide Energy for cellular and body activity eg movement, growth, active transport, etc Matter for building cell components and body structures eg cell membranes, enzymes, muscle, bone, etc Essential compounds eg cofactors, minerals, vitamins, for healthy functioning

3. Organisms produce wastes The wastes produced depend on diet: Carbohydrates are broken down into carbon dioxide and water Fats are broken down into carbon dioxide and water Proteins are broken down into carbohydrates and ammonia The greater the amount of protein in the diet, the more ammonia produced

4. Wastes depend on lifestyle Herbivores eat plant material and produce small amounts of nitrogenous wastes Carnivores eat meat and produce large amounts of nitrogenous wastes

5. Nitrogenous wastes These come from the breakdown of In deamination the amine group is removed The carbohydrate is then used for energy or stored The amine group turns into ammonia which can be excreted or turned into urea or uric acid Carbohydrate Amine group

6. Terminology Toxicity – how poisonous a substance is The greater the toxicity, the faster wastes must be removed Solubility – how easily substance dissolves The greater the solubility, the more water is needed for removal

7. Comparing nitrogenous wastes AmmoniaUric acidUrea Toxicity HighLowMedium Solubility HighLowMedium Water use HighLowMedium Energy use LowHighMedium Advantages Less energy needed Less water needed, less toxic than ammonia Easier to remove from placenta, less toxic than ammonia Disadvantages Very toxic, needs removal quickly, large water use High energy use, can’t be used with a placenta Moderate energy use, moderate water loss Examples fishBirds & reptilesMammals Sharks

8. Removing wastes Aquatic organisms excrete wastes from gills and kidneys into the water surrounding them. Most waste is lost from the gills Land organisms excrete wastes from respiratory surfaces (lungs) and kidneys. Most waste is lost from the kidneys

9. The kidney cortex capsule medulla Renal artery Renal vein pelvis ureter

10. The nephron

11. The mammalian nephron

12. Functions of nephron Filtration sieving or separation by passing through small pores Reabsorption retrieval or taking substances back from the nephron into the blood, so essential substances are not lost Secretion throwing away or placing substances from the blood into the nephron to get rid of wastes

13. How the nephron works

14. Differences between nephrons

15. Freshwater animals Freshwater organisms must cope with a hypotonic (less salty) environment Water constantly enters and salts leave Freshwater organisms must constantly remove excess water and actively bring in salts salts The nitrogenous waste is ammonia Most of the nitrogenous wastes leave from the gills

16. Dealing with freshwater In freshwater fish filtration occurs at the glomerulus Essential ingredients are reclaimed by the tubules The loop is reduced so little water is reabsorbed There is very little secretion The urine is dilute and copious

17. Saltwater organisms Marine organisms cope with a hypertonic (more salty) environment Osmoconformers eg jellyfish, sharks solve the problem by maintaining body fluids at the same concentration as seawater, by increasing salts (jellyfish) or other substances eg urea in sharks Osmoregulators eg bony fish, lose water continuously and gain salt The nitrogenous waste is ammonia

18. Dealing with salt water Because there is no reason to pump out large amounts of filtrate at the glomerulus, many bony fishes have small glomeruli and some have no glomeruli at all As they reduce filtration and reabsorption, marine bony fishes rely more on for eliminating excess or waste solutes

19. Terrestrial organisms The major problem is water availability Organisms can gain water by eating, drinking or metabolism (eg respiration, fat metabolism) Organisms can lose water by urine, faeces, respiratory surfaces (eg panting) and body surfaces (eg sweating)

20. Reptiles and birds Reptiles and birds excrete uric acid Uric acid is quite insoluble and so can be excreted using very little water This is useful in egg layers because it takes up very little space in the eggs

21. Adaptations in egg-layers Bird and reptile glomeruli are quite small, some reptiles have no glomeruli at all. Those with glomeruli filter just enough fluid to wash the uric acid, secreted by the tubules, into the cloaca. Most of this moisture is reabsorbed in the cloaca. Most reptiles don’t drink water. The water content of its diet plus the water produced by respiration is usually sufficient. Most birds drink a small amount fresh water. Marine birds often drink salt water and secrete salt from glands above the beak

22. Mammals All mammals excrete urea Urea requires much more water to be excreted than uric acid but less than ammonia Mammals produce large amounts of nephric filtrate but are able to reabsorb most of this in the tubules. The efficiency of reabsorption is related to the size of the medulla or length of loop

23. Adaptations in mammals Kangaroo rats can produce a urine 17 times more concentrated that its blood so it doesn’t drink water – getting water from its diet Camels can metabolise fat stored in their hump to produce water, so they don’t need to drink for days