1. Chapter 19 Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

2. Fig. 26-1 why isn't it a snake? -no fused eyelid -no highly mobile jaw -no short tail some lizerds have lost the limbs this condition is found in burrowers that live in grasslands adaptation

3. Overview: Investigating the Tree of Life Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species The discipline of systematics classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships

4. Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships Taxonomy is the ordered division and naming of organisms

5. The two-part scientific name of a species is called a binomial The first part of the name is the genus The second part, called the specific epithet, is unique for each species within the genus The first letter of the genus is capitalized, and the entire species name is italicized or underlined Both parts together name the species Carolus Linnaeus published a system of taxonomy: 2 key features of his system remain useful today: two-part names for species and hierarchical classification

6. Hierarchical Classification Linnaeus introduced a system for grouping species in increasingly broad categories The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called a taxon

7. Fig. 26-3 Species: Panthera pardus Genus: Panthera Family: Felidae Order: Carnivora Class: Mammalia Phylum: Chordata Kingdom: Animalia ArchaeaDomain: Eukarya Bacteria

8. Linking Classification and Phylogeny Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees Linnaean classification and phylogeny can differ from each other Systematists have proposed the PhyloCode, which recognizes only groups that include a common ancestor and all its descendents

9. Fig. 26-4 Species Canis lupus Panthera pardus Taxidea taxus Lutra lutra Canis latrans OrderFamilyGenus Carnivora Felidae Mustelidae Canidae Canis Lutra Taxidea Panthera

10. Fig. 26-5 Sister taxa ANCESTRAL LINEAGE Taxon A Polytomy: more than 2 groups emerge Common ancestor of taxa A–F Branch point (node) Taxon B Taxon C Taxon D Taxon E Taxon F

11. What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees Phylogenetic trees do show patterns of descent Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when species evolved or how much genetic change occurred in a lineage It shouldn’t be assumed that a taxon evolved from the taxon next to it Applications: whale meat sold illegaly in Japan http://www.bozemanscience.com/006- phylogenetics

12. Sorting Homology from Analogy Homology is similarity due to shared ancestry like between a wolf and a coyote Analogy is similarity due to convergent evolution, similar conditions/adaptations Look alike, but evolved independantly from each other Australian "mole" North American mole

13. Fig. 26-8 Deletion Insertion 1 2 3 4 Orange sections no longer align only with addition of gaps will they align Types of mutations that notmally occur Systematists use computer programs and mathematic al tools when analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms

14. It is also important to distinguish homology from analogy in molecular similarities Mathematical tools help to identify molecular homoplasies, or coincidences Molecular systematics uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships

15. Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees Cladistics groups organisms by common descent A clade is a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants A valid clade is monophyletic, signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants A paraphyletic grouping consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants A polyphyletic grouping consists of various species that lack a common ancestor

16. Fig. 26-10 A A A BBB CCC D D D EEE FF F G GG Group III Group II Group I (a) Monophyletic group (clade) (b) Paraphyletic group (c) Polyphyletic group Includes all descendants

17. Shared Ancestral and Shared Derived Characters In comparison with its ancestor, an organism has both shared and different characteristics A shared ancestral character is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon A shared derived character is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade A character can be both ancestral and derived, depending on the context, it is useful to know in which clade a shared derived character first appeared

18. Fig. 26-11 TAXA Lancelet (outgroup) Lamprey Salamander Leopard Turtle Tuna Vertebral column (backbone) Hinged jaws Four walking legs Amniotic (shelled) egg CHARACTERS Hair (a) Character table Hair Hinged jaws Vertebral column Four walking legs Amniotic egg (b) Phylogenetic tree Salamander Leopard Turtle Lamprey Tuna Lancelet (outgroup) 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 00 000 1 11 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 11 An outgroup is a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup, the various species being studied Systematists compare each ingroup species with the outgroup to differentiate between shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics Homologies shared by the outgroup and ingroup are ancestral characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor

19. Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths In some trees, the length of a branch can reflect the number of genetic changes that have taken place in a particular DNA sequence in that lineage In other trees, branch length can represent chronological time, and branching points can be determined from the fossil record

20. Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood Systematists can never be sure of finding the best tree in a large data set Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely The principle of maximum likelihood states that, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events

21. Fig. 26-14 Human 15% Tree 1: More likelyTree 2: Less likely (b) Comparison of possible trees 15% 5% 10% 25% 20% 40% 30%0 0 0 (a) Percentage differences between sequences Human Mushroom Tulip

22. Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees fit the most data: morphological, molecular, and fossil Phylogenetic bracketing allows us to predict features of an ancestor from features of its descendants – This has been applied to infer features of dinosaurs from their descendents: birds and crocodiles

23. Fig. 26-16 Common ancestor of crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds Birds Lizards and snakes Crocodilians Ornithischian dinosaurs Saurischian dinosaurs

24. An organism ’ s evolutionary history is documented in its genome Comparing nucleic acids or other molecules to infer relatedness is a valuable tool for tracing organisms’ evolutionary history DNA that codes for rRNA changes relatively slowly and is useful for investigating branching points hundreds of millions of years ago mtDNA evolves rapidly and can be used to explore recent evolutionary events

25. Gene Duplications and Gene Families Gene duplication increases the number of genes in the genome, providing more opportunities for evolutionary changes Like homologous genes, duplicated genes can be traced to a common ancestor Orthologous genes are found in a single copy in the genome and are homologous between species – They can diverge only after speciation occurs Paralogous genes result from gene duplication, so are found in more than one copy in the genome – They can diverge within the clade that carries them and often evolve new functions

26. Genome Evolution Orthologous genes are widespread and extend across many widely varied species Gene number and the complexity of an organism are not strongly linked Genes in complex organisms appear to be very versatile and each gene can perform many functions

27. From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains More recently, the three-domain system has been adopted: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya The three-domain system is supported by data from many sequenced genomes

28. Fig. 26-21 Fungi EUKARYA Trypanosomes Green algae Land plants Red algae Forams Ciliates Dinoflagellates Diatoms Animals Amoebas Cellular slime molds Leishmania Euglena Green nonsulfur bacteria Thermophiles Halophiles Methanobacterium Sulfolobus ARCHAEA COMMON ANCESTOR OF ALL LIFE BACTERIA (Plastids, including chloroplasts) Green sulfur bacteria (Mitochondrion) Cyanobacteria Chlamydia Spirochetes

29. Fig. 26-23 Archaea Bacteria Eukarya The End