1. Advance Organizer Explain how good thinking enhances learning
Explain why good thinking is not taught well in schools
Analyse the key components of a ‘Thinking Curriculum’
Write learning outcomes to incorporate types of thinking
Use instructional strategies to teach good thinking
Identify assessment methods to assess thinking
Analyse a Model of Thinking
Identify barriers to good thinking

2. Thinking: A Key Process for effective learning
“The best thing we can do, from the point of view of the brain and learning,
is to teach our learners how to think”
(Jenson, 1996, p.163)
“Thought is the key to knowledge. Knowledge is
discovered by thinking, analysed by thinking,
organized by thinking, transformed by thinking,
assessed by thinking, and, most importantly,
acquired by thinking”
(Paul, 1993 vii)
Thinking is the cognitive process that builds
Understanding

3. Problems of Definition
“In schools, critical thinking has long been a buzz phrase. Educators pay lip
service to its Importance, but few can tell me what they mean by the phrase
or how they teach and test it...” (p.16)
“For the most part, teachers haven’t been trained to teach students how to think.”
(xxiv)
(Wagner, T., 2010, The Global Achievement Gap)
“... But the heart of this problem is our failure to define such terms
as critical thinking, problem solving, metacognition, reasoning,
and abstract thinking. Without adequate definition and training,
teachers lack the knowledge and skills to teach and test for these
desirable but elusive human qualities”
(Haladyna, T., 1997, Writing Test Items to Evaluate Higher Order Thinking, p.97)

4. Good thinking, what’s that?
This involves Critical Thinking – have I seen this problem before, what are the likely causes, what information do I need to clearly interpret what’s occurring....?
I want good
Thinking on this
Good thinking, what’s that?

5. So if we really want to develop students ability to think well, we must firstly be able to…

6. Aligned Curriculum Design Model
Learning
Outcomes
Types of
Thinking
Assessment
System
Instructional
Strategies
This slides identifies the 3 most important components of the curriculum (learning outcomes, Instructional methods/strategies and assessment), which need to be planned in unison to achieve consistency of purpose. For example, the assessment strategy must validly assess the learning outcomes.Similarly, the instructional methods and strategies must be those which offer the best opportunities for facilitating the types of learning identified in the learning outcomes
In basic terms this means that the types of thinking incorporated in the Learning
Outcomes must be effectively taught through the Instructional Strategies
used and accurately measured in the Assessment System.

7. Things to disrupt - “put a spanner in the works”- good thinking: what do you think they are?

8. Brain Barriers to Learning (and Thinking)
Inherent Design Features of Cognition
The mind is inherently ‘lazy’ when it comes to cognitive effort and typically relies on learned associations, rather that good thinking and empirical evidence.
Furthermore, incoming information automatically passes through established neural networks – hence the brain will ensure that we perceive what we have learned to see.
Restricted Working Memory & Slow processing Speed
Despite Long Term Memory having unlimited capacity for information – Working Memory can only deal with around 7 bits of information at once.
Furthermore, the actual processing speed of the brain is slow compared to its capacity and organising ability.
Personality Configurations, Emotions and Conflicting Neural Structures
Whether we like it or not, ‘intelligent design’ is highly questionable; the natural state of the mind is one of internal conflict

9. Our brain uses Two Systems to analyse and respond to environmental challenges:
System 1 is a fast reflexive system that identifies the familiar, especially threatening elements in a situation and
quickly activates automatic response patterns. This system is the most essential for survival and is the default system.
However, it also results in rapid stereotypical/prejudicial judgements and action. It is the price we pay for this powerful
survival system
System 2 is a slow, analytic, reflective system (that explores the more objective factual elements of a situation,
compares them with previously learned elements, and then responds. However, this requires self control, effort and time,
which creates cognitive strain – and is inherently lazy.

10. Visual Illusions

11. Annoying

12. Beliefs
“We forget that beliefs are no more than perceptions, usually with a limited sell by date, yet we act as though they were concrete realities”
(Adler, 1996, p.145)
... And they shape our Psychological State (attitude) to the situation we are in

13. Perception shapes reality
“90% of errors of thinking are errors of perception”
“If you want to change emotions, change perception”
Edward De Bono
“One man’s meat is another man’s poison”
Old English saying (older than me anyway)

14. Generating Possibilities
A Model of Thinking
Metacognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis

15. Generating Possibilities
What do we do when we
generate possibilities?
Generate many possibilities
Generate different types of possibilities
Generate novel possibilities
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis
All creative products involve the
combining of old ideas or elements
in new ways

16. What is Creativity? A product or response will be judged creative to the extent that it is novel, useful or a valuable response to the task at hand. (summarized from Amabile, 1996, p.35)
<>
One dark foggy night in Halifax, as Percy Shaw was driving home, he saw two
small green lights, very close together near the edge of the road. He was curious
so he stopped and saw the ‘lights’ were a pair of cats eyes reflecting the light from
his head lights.
This triggered off his thinking, making some new connections in his brain – subsequently he invented a small device involving two marbles placed close together in a rubber casing; this would then be set in the road at intervals between the lanes of traffic.
After a year of experiments, Percy patented the invention and then, in 1935, formed his company, Reflecting Roadstuds Ltd. (That’s Innovation & Enterprise)

17. Creativity: Not Thinking out of the Box
It all happens Inside the Head, it’s just a question of what’s in there, what you do with it and how
Little in there, little desire and effort to keep making new neural connections -
especially across knowledge areas – expect little by way of creativity
Creativity results from conscious (and subconscious) neural restructuring that results in
NEW PERCEPTIONS

18. you are free to see things from any perspective you wish”
Reframing
“How your perceive something makes all the difference and
you are free to see things from any perspective you wish”
(Adler, 1996, p.145)
To shift to a different frame will typically reframe one’s perspective and
therefore, one’s meaning. And when we do this, our very world
changes, which changes the sensory experience, hence how we feel
Slimy Pond Life or
Tasty Dinner?

19. Generating Possibilities
Analysis
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis
What do we do
when we analyse?
Identify relationship of the parts to a whole in system /structure/model
Identify functions of each part
Identify consequences to the whole, if a part was missing
Identify what collections of parts form important sub-systems of the whole
Identify if and how certain parts have a synergetic effect

20. Comparison and Contrast
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis
What do we do when we compare and contrast?
Identify what is similar between things - objects/options/ideas, etc.
Identify what is different between things
Identify and consider what is important about both the similarities and differences
Identify a range of situations when the different features are applicable

21. Inference and Interpretation
What do we do when we make inferences and interpretations?
Identify intentions and assumptions in data
Separate fact from opinion in data
Identify key points, connections, and contradictions in data
Make meaning of the data/information available
Establish a best picture to make predictions
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis

22. Evaluation What do we do when we evaluate?
Decide on what is to be evaluated
Identify appropriate criteria from which evaluation can be made
Prioritize the importance of the criteria
Apply the criteria and make decision
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis

23. Metacognition What are we doing when we are metacognitive?
Aware that we can think in an organized manner (and the barriers to it)
Actively thinking about the ways in which we are thinking
Monitoring and evaluating how effective we are thinking (including how our emotions and beliefs may be impacting the thinking process)
Seeking to make more effective use of the different ways of thinking as well as any useful learning strategies, tools and resources
Meta-cognition
Comparison
& Contrast
Inference &
Interpretation
Evaluation
Generating Possibilities
Analysis
“To be properly metacognitive...students have to be realistically
aware of their own cognitive resources in relation to the task
demands, and then to plan, monitor, and control those resources”
(Biggs, 1987)

24. Metacognition plays a central role in learning by monitoring the quality of the
overall (and specific aspects) of the thinking process, our emotional
dispositions, as well as the choice and application of learning strategies and skills
It operates at both conscious
and sub/unconscious levels.

25. Good Thinking is…
… the ability to use Critical, Creative & Metacognitive thinking in an highly competent manner to solve problems:
This involves:
Using each type of thinking effectively and efficiently
Using them in unison and synergistically
Managing a WIDE range of barriers to the thinking process

26. Infusion Approach 1 Curriculum Compare & contrast Analysis
Inference & interpretation
Evaluation
Generating possibilities
Metacognition
Thinking Skills
This method of incorporating thinking into the curriculum is advocated by the work of Professor Robert Swartz, who has written extensively in this area. In his model, he identifies a range of thinking skills, which are to be appropriately and systematically infused into the content of a curriculum. He argues that thinking is best taught - and learned – in the context of the content of the curriculum.
Curriculum

27. thinking that underpin competent performance Real world applications
Infusion Approach 2
Specific types of
thinking that underpin
competent performance
Real world applications
of the subject content
This method of infusion was derived from my own work and advocates a more ‘bottom up’ approach than Swartz’s top down method. Rather than start with a menu of thinking skills, begin instead with a consideration of what you want form the curriculum. I suggest that most curriculum should attempt to provide a competency focus, whereby learning resembles what occurs in the real world. Having identified the real world activities that students will be expected to perform, the types of thinking are derived by examining what highly competent professional do in performing these activities. The following slide demonstrates this process with an example
Curriculum

28. Identifying the Types of Thinking
Step 1
Refocus the curriculum
towards real world activities or competency
Step 2
Identify the types of thinking that underpin competent performance in these real world activities through
COGNITIVE MODELING
In doing this it is useful to start by asking
the question:
How does a highly competent
person think in the effective
execution of this activity?
Example from a Business Law
Module:
Predict possible legal outcomes
in the event of a breach of contract
Analyse the components of a contract
Compare and contrast the expected and the actual behaviour of defendants
Make inferences and interpretations concerning the behaviour
Evaluate the possibility of specific outcomes

29. Writing learning outcomes
Write in direct performance terms – focusing on:
the Type of Thinking or Product Outcome
Analyse the impact of pollution on water quality
Compare and contrast a range of retaining structures
Generate new design options for marketing a health food product
Predict the outcomes of specified legal scenarios
Conduct product packaging tests for a specified product
Prepare a voyage passage plan
Write a programme in Java script to animate a range of figures
Prepare a tender report
NOTE: Objectives can be written at different levels of specificity and contextualized accordingly – but the general concept of focusing on the desired performance applies
Having identified the areas of competence and underpinning types of thinking in your curriculum, you can now construct the appropriate learning outcomes. Whether the learning outcomes focus on the types of thinking or product outcomes does not matter. What is essential is that the learning outcomes embody the essential content knowledge, types of thinking and other process or attitudinal components felt appropriate for effective learning in this curriculum

30. Promoting Thinking – General but Essential Instructional Principles
Systematically teach and model the types of thinking, taking students through the range of cognitive operations for each type of thinking (Direct Instruction using the Language of Thinking: Making Thinking Visible)
Use structured questions to direct and reinforce types of thinking (e.g., “Lets compare & contrast these two diets”; What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from these data sources about the possible use of cloning in food production, etc)”
Involve students in real world learning tasks which necessitate direct use of the types of thinking
Consistently promote dispositions (habits of mind) conducive to good thinking and effective learning (e.g., persistence, managing impulsivity, openness, flexibility, attention to detail, good listening, humour, etc)
We are now quite clear on the types of instructional methods and strategies that help to promote thinking and meaningful learning. The uses of active and collaborative methods, real world based learning tasks, a classroom climate of inquiry and mutual support are fully supported by a wide research of recent research on how we learn and related brain behaviour.

31. Getting students familiar with the Language of Thinking
Often used teacher language
Cueing types of thinking
Comment on these two proposed solutions
Lets compare and contrast these two solutions....identify what is similar and different in each....then apply our understanding to some specific situations....
Do you think this is the best option?
What do you think might have happened here?
What’s this data about?
How else could this be done?
How will you know if your assignment is well done?
What is taken for granted by the author in this piece of writing?

32. Making Good Thinking Visible
“...teachers have to make their own intellectual processes (their performances)
visible. This means that the teacher-expert has to make visible to learners
the otherwise invisible processes of thinking that underlie complex cognitive
operations ...
Teachers have to articulate and demonstrate rather than assume the
thought processes they want students to learn”
(Sheppard et al, 2009, p.188)

33. Making Students Thinking Visible
“We need to make thinking visible because it provides us with the information
we as teachers need to plan opportunities that will take students’ learning
to the next level and enable continued engagement with the ideas being explored.
It is only when we understand what our students are thinking, feeling, and
attending to that we can use that knowledge to further engage and support them
in the process of understanding. Thus making students’ thinking visible becomes
an ongoing component of effective teaching”
(Ritchhart, Church & Morrison, 2011, p.27)

34. The Power of Questions
“Questions are the primary way we learn virtually everything”
“Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and
answering questions”
“Questions immediately change what we focus on and,
therefore, how we feel”
(Anthony Robbins, 2001, pp.179-8)
“All answers come out of the question. If we pay attention to
our questions, we increase the power of meaningful learning”
Ellen Langer

35. Using Questions The effective use of questions is a powerful means of
promoting specific types of thinking, for example:
What are the similarities and differences between Hepatitis A and HIV?
In what ways are these differences significant?
What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from the data on HIV infection in Asia?
How might we evaluate the effectiveness of the present HIV prevention programme?
What is the relationship between HIV infection and poverty?
What other ways might we make people more aware of HIV infection?

36. Instructional Strategies (methods, activities, tools) for promoting thinking
Questioning
Small group activities that involve specific types of thinking (e.g. buzz groups, rounds, poster board tours, etc)
Co-operative learning structures
Case studies
Projects/PBL activities
Role play
Performance tasks that involve specific types of thinking
Discussion/Debates
Thinking Tools, e.g., Mind mapping, ‘Thinking Hats’, Plus- Minus-Interesting, Forced Associations, etc

37. Ways in which meta-cognitive thinking can be developed & enhanced:
Make students Aware of this distinctively human capability and how it works
Explain and demonstrate how metacognition works
Illustrate with a range of examples why metacognition is so important in learning and personal success
2. Build metacognitive thinking into specific learning activities (e.g., project work
Get students to reflect on and document the quality of their thinking, identifying challenges faced in their learning and how they have gone about tackling these challenges
3. Facilitate and reinforce metacognition through other ‘Teachable
Moments’
Whenever metacognitive thinking would be valuable to enhancing thinking and learning

38. Thinking Tools and Techniques
Mindmapping (A learning & thinking tool)
Thinking Hats (A thought management tool)
Plus-Minus-Interesting (A simple practical tool for identifying positives, negatives and unsure elements in a situation)
Force-Field Analysis (A critical and creative thinking tool for managing change)
Forced Associations (A creative thinking technique to break out of traditional patterns of perception and thinking)
PO (A creative thinking technique)
Note: thinking tools and techniques don’t do the thinking, they only provide a means for organizing your thinking

40. Plus-Minus-Interesting

41. Force-Field Analysis Current Situation Desired Situation
Potency:
:Potency
Forces driving change
Forces resisting change
Equilibrium
The objective is to move the balance to the right, which can be achieved by:
identifying forces, their causes and strength
planning and acting to assist the driving forces
planning and acting to reduce the resisting forces
using some of the resisting forces against each other if possible

42. Forced Associations (Random Triggers)
Forced Associations is a technique for linking another thinking pattern into
the one we are presently using. We do this by selecting a random concrete noun
from a different field and combining it with the problem under consideration.
For example, we might be looking at ways to make lifts quicker.
By choosing a random word ‘Mirror’ could lead to installing mirrors by lifts.
As we know this is a popular solution for ‘slow lifts’. The lift doesn’t go faster,
but people waiting don’t notice this as they look in the mirror.
Force Associate
with ‘Mirror’

43. PO (Provocative Operation)
PO involves making deliberately provocative statements, which seek to
force thinking out of established patterns.
Examples: “Everybody should go to prison”
“Lets abolish schools”
Having made a provocative statement, it is then necessary to suspend judgement
and use the statement to generate ideas. For example, you can generate ideas
by examining:
The consequences of the statement
What the benefits could be?
What would need to change in order to make it a sensible statement?
What would happen if a sequence of events changed?

44. What are ‘Real World’ Learning Tasks?
“Central to a pedagogy that seeks to promote the development of good thinking
is the systematic use of well constructed and managed learning tasks that reflect
real world activity and involve the use of specific types of thinking.
(Wasserman, 1993, p.20)
Such tasks are often referred to as Performance-Tasks
as they concentrate on the thoughtful application of knowledge
in real life contexts

45. Types of Real World Tasks
Real work projects and tasks
Simulations
Problem solving through case studies
Problem-based learning (PBL) activities
Presentations
Any activity that essentially models what would be done by people in the world of work

46. Example: Design A Food Package
Select a food product and design the packaging that you think will give it
best marketability. You must be able to identify the product attributes,
protection and enhancement needed to satisfy the functional and
marketing requirements, and use suitable packaging material(s) and
package type. The work produced should reflect the quality of your
thinking in the following areas:
identify the criteria for evaluating the marketability of a product
analyze the components of a product that constitute an effective design
generate new ways of viewing a product design beyond existing standard forms
predict potential clients response to the product given the information you have
monitor the development on the group’s progress and revise strategy where
necessary
An example of a task scenario from an engineering module. The key types of thinking have been cued for the students. It is important to note that by cuing the types of thinking for students, this does not do the work for them. This is no different from knowing what you have to do in a driving test – it does not make the test any easier, you must still have the competence to meet the driving standards. Once students become familiar with the types of thinking and develop competence in using them, it becomes less necessary to provide these cues.

47. Steps in designing performance tasks
Step 1: Identify clearly the knowledge, skills and processes to be incorporated into the task
For this step it is important to:
Choose specific topic areas in your curriculum that encompass key underpinning knowledge (e.g., central concepts, principles, procedures) and skills essential for understanding and performance in real world applications.
Identify the types of thinking that are important for promoting student understanding and subsequent competence in these topic areas. For example, generating possibilities, analysis, comparison and contrast, inference and interpretation, evaluation, etc.
Identify other process skills (e.g., communication, team-working, managing learning, etc.) that are important for competent performance in the identified areas.
In a Thinking Curriculum, a lot of focus is placed on students being actively and collaboratively involved in real world problem-solving. The use of real life performance tasks, projects, case studies and other simulated real world activity is essential. However, it is important that these tasks are carefully designed to effectively promote the learning outcomes of the curriculum. In this and the following slide, the key steps and notes of guidance are provided to help you design these tasks. Remember, in the first set of slides “Underpinning model of learning…” – competent performance involves the dynamic use of knowledge, thinking, doing and desire. You will probably need to do a fair bit of thinking and doing in order to produce good learning tasks. However, the effort put in will be worth the benefits gained in terms of supporting instruction and helping students to learn effectively. Also, interesting and challenging tasks usually motivate students much more than traditional classroom learning activities.

48. Steps in designing performance tasks
Step 2: Produce the learning task
It is important that the task:
Clearly involves the application of the knowledge, skills and processes identified from Step 1.
Is sufficiently challenging, but realistically achievable in terms of student’s prior competence, access to resources, and time frames allocated.
Successful completion involves more than one correct answer or more than one correct way of achieving the correct answer
Clear notes of guidance are provided, which:
Identify the products of the task and what formats of presentation are acceptable (e.g. written report, learning materials, portfolio, oral presentation, etc.)
Specify the parameters of the activity (e.g. time, length, areas to incorporate, individual/collaborative, how much choice is permitted, support provided, etc.)
Cue the types of thinking and other desired process skills
Spell out all aspects of the assessment process and criteria.

49. Key considerations in producing a marking scheme
Performance areas assessed to reflect learning objectives
Performance criteria for each performance area
Marks weighting for each performance area to reflect table of specifications/assessment blueprint
sources of Performance evidence to be used (e.g., written/oral questioning, product, observation, etc)
Format for marking scheme – checklist, rating scale/ scoring rubric

50. Marking Formats for performance assessments
Marking Scheme
Rubric
analytic
holistic
Checklist
Decide on the basis of level of
Inference in making assessment decision
analytic or holistic rubric – what’s
the difference, and on what basis
would you decide?

51. Decide format on the basis of whether the item involves High or Low Inference
Low inference items are those where the performances being tested are clearly visible and there is a widely established correct answer (e.g., conducting a fire drill, setting up an experiment) Here a Checklist is most appropriate
High inference items involve performances that are less directly visible and/or more open to subjective judgement (e.g., creative writing, managing a team) Here a rating scale/scoring rubric is most appropriate
A major challenge to test design is to produce tasks that require low
inference scoring systems. Unfortunately, many worthwhile student
outcomes reflecting higher order thinking lend themselves more to high
inference scoring.

52. What rubrics can and cannot do…
It is also important to remember that the rubric does not make the
assessment decision; this is the responsibility of the assessing
teacher
Rubrics provides a guiding frame for focusing attention on the key
elements/constructs (performance criteria) of the assessment area
and summary descriptors of a range of performances.

53. Developing a checklist
Identify the important components - procedures, processes or operations - in an assessment activity
for example, in conducting an experiment one important operation is likely to be the generation of a viable hypothesis
For each component, write a statement that identifies competent performance for this procedure, process or operation
in the above example, the following may be pertinent:
A clear viable hypothesis is described
Allocate a mark distribution for each component - if appropriate
this is likely to reflect its importance or level of complexity
Note: Checklists are most useful for low inference items –where the performance evidence is clearly agreed and there is little disagreement relating to effective or ineffective performance (e.g., observable steps)
If you follow this process carefully, you will produce a valid and user-friendly checklist. Checklist are most useful in situations where the assessment decision seeks to identify a competent/ not competent judgement on performance.

54. Assessment checklist for Designing and Conducting a Small Experiment
Performance Areas/criteria:
The context of the experiment is accurately described 
A clear viable hypothesis is presented 
The method/procedure is appropriate 
There is no infringement on persons 
Findings are clearly collated and presented 
Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the data
and comparison is made with existing data 
7. The write-up of the experiment meets required conventions 
These are the main operations and processes to be assessed form the item. Note the performance criteria for each of the seven areas is not provided.
The allocation of marks for each performance area will reflect the weighting allocated in the
Table of Specifications

55. Developing a scoring rubric
Define the performance area/learning targets for an assessment (must relate to learning outcomes)
for example, ‘Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the data and comparison is made with existing data’
Identify and describe the key attributes that underpin competence for each performance area (preferably observable and measurable)
Using the above example (attributes – concept, types of thinking)
Validity
inference and interpretation
comparison and contrast
Write a concise description of performance at a range of levels from very good to very poor
for example, 5 = very good; 1 = very poor
The rating scale/scoring rubric is an adaptation of the checklist system in that it produces a range of descriptions of performance, typically 5 levels from very poor to very good. This enable levels of qualitative decision making in the assessment process.
The following four slides show the relationship between a set of learning outcomes, a performance-based learning task/assessment item and these two formats for a marking scheme.
Note: Rating Scales/Scoring Rubrics are most for useful for high inference items –
where the performance evidence requires considerable professional judgement in making an assessment decision

56. Scoring Rubric for: Valid inferences & interpretations are drawn from the data and comparison is made with existing data
Score Description
5 All valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are consistently logical given the data obtained. All essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance fully emphasized.
4 Most of the valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are mainly logical given the data obtained. Most essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their main significance emphasized.
3 Some valid inferences are derived from data. Some logical interpretations are made from data obtained. Some essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance partly established.
2 Few valid inferences are derived. Interpretation of findings are limited . Comparison and contrast with existing data is partial and its significance not established.
1 Failure to make valid inferences and interpretations.