1. What is Motivation? Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
Key Elements
Intensity: how hard a person tries
Direction: toward beneficial goal
Persistence: how long a person tries

2. Motivation and Performance
Environment
Motivation
Effort
Performance
Ability

3. 3 Major Types of Motivation Theories
Content Theories of Motivation
WHAT motivates us
Process Theories of Motivation
WHY and HOW motivation occurs
Reinforcement Theory
HOW outcomes influence behaviors

4. Content Perspectives on Motivation
Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question, “What factors in the workplace motivate people?”
Content Perspectives of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Aldefer’s ERG Theory
McGregory’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Achievement, Power, and Affiliation Needs

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
General Examples
Organizational Examples
Self-
Challenging
job
actualization
Achievement
Job
Status
Esteem
title
Friends
Friendship
Belongingness
at work
Pension
Stability
Security
plan
Base
Food
Physiology
salary

6. Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs A Content Perspective
What factor or factors motivate people
Weakness of Theory
Five levels of need are not always present
Order is not always the same
Cultural differences
Need’s Hierarchy in China…an example:
Belonging
Physiological
Safety
Self actualizing in service to society

8. Alderfer’s ERG Theory A Content Perspective
Existence needs
Physiological
Relatedness needs
How one individual relates to his/her social environment
Growth needs
Achievement and self actualization

9. Alderfer’s ERG Theory A Content Perspective
Satisfaction-Progression
Frustration-Regression
Growth Needs
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs

10. Content Theories McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y
Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.
Theory Y
Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.
Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

11. Content Theories Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.
Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction.
Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.
Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

12. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

13. Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

14. McClelland’s Needs Theory
Three-Needs Theory
There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel and succeed
Need for power (nPow)
The need to influence the behavior of others
Need of affiliation (nAff)
The desire for interpersonal relationships

15. Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow

16. Process Perspectives of Motivation
Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.
Process perspectives of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory

17. Goal-Setting Theory A Process Perspective
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
Difficulty
Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
Specificity
Clarity and precision of the goal.
Goal Achievement Depends on:
Acceptance
Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.
Commitment
Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.

18. Equity Theory: A Process Perspective
Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and compare it to other people.
outcomes(self)
outcomes (other) =
inputs (self)
inputs (other)
Motivation to maintain current situation
Ways to reduce inequity
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Alter perceptions of self
Alter perceptions of other
Leave situation
Change comparisons
Equity
Inequity
Inputs/Outcomes Comparison of self with others

19. Justice and Equity Theory

20. Interactional Justice
Three types of Justice
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.
“Was I treated well?”

21. Expectancy Theory The Basic Idea
People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over others.
They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction should such a preferred outcome be achieved.
Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.

22. Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective
Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it
Elements
Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability that effort will lead to performance.
Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the perception that performance leads to an outcome.
Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance.
Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.

23. Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective
M = E x I x V
For motivated behavior to occur:
Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0
Performance-to-outcome must be greater than 0
Sum of valences must be greater than 0*
* One or more valences may be negative!

24. The Expectancy Model of Motivation
Environment
Motivation
Effort
Performance
Ability
Outcome
Valence

26. A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
High Effort
Decision to
Exert Effort
Low Effort
Performance
Goal
Expectancy
“What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I work hard?”
if I slack off?”
Instrumentality
of getting various
outcomes if I achieve
my performance goal?”
Valence
“How much do I value
these outcomes?”
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1

27. Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Assumptions:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

28. Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
Chapter SEVEN
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications

29. Job Design Theory Job Characteristics Model
Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.
Characteristics:
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback

30. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:
Knowledge of results
Meaningfulness of work
Personal feelings of responsibility for results
Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

31. The Job Characteristics Model
E X H I B I T 7–1
Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

32. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

33. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

34. Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Characteristics Examples
Skill Variety
High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Significance
High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
Prentice Hall, 2003

35. Computing a Motivating Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.