1. Semiconductor Revolution in the 20th Century
Zhores Alferov
Semiconductor Revolution in the 20th Century
St Petersburg Academic University — Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre RAS

2. Introduction
Semiconductor research in 1930th
Transistor discovery
Discovery of laser–maser principle and birth of quantum optoelectronics
Invention and development of the silicon chips
Heterostructure research “God-made” and “Man-made” crystals
Problems and future trends

3. Polytechnical Institute
Ioffe seminar at the Polytechnical Institute. 1916

4. Yakov Frenkel

5. One of the last
Ioffe photo. September 1960

6. Laboratory demo model of the first bipolar transistor
Schematic plot of the first point-contact transistor

7. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
William Bradford Shockley
1910–1989
John Bardeen
1908–1991
Walter Houser Brattain
1902–1987

12. W. Shockley and A. Ioffe. Prague. 1960.

13. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964
"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
Charles Hard Townes b. 1915
Nicolay Basov –2001
Aleksandr Prokhorov
1916–2002 13

14. 14

15. 15

16. Lasers and LEDs on p–n junctions
January 1962: observations of superlumenscences in GaAs p-n junctions (Ioffe Institute, USSR).
Sept.-Dec. 1962: laser action in GaAs and GaAsP p-n junctions (General Electric , IBM (USA); Lebedev Institute (USSR).
Condition of optical gain:
EnF – EpF > Eg 16

17. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000
"for basic work on information and communication technology"
“for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics”
“for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit”
Zhores I. Alferov b. 1930
Herbert Kroemer b. 1928
Jack S. Kilby
1923–2005 17

20. First integrated circuit/notebook

21. Patent of the first integrated circuit by R. Noyce

22. Factory sales of Electronics and IC
S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983)
(a) Factory sales of Electronics in the United States over the past 50 years and projected to (b) Integrated circuit Market in the United States. 22

23. Changing composition of work force in the United States
S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983) 23

24. Penetration of technology into the industrial output
S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983)
Penetration of technology into the industrial output versus year for four periods of change in the United States electronics industry. 24

25. Moore's law I: device downsizing25
H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18,

26. Moore's law II: chip density26
H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18,

27. Increase in the power density of VLSI chips27
B. Jalali et. all., OPN, June 2009

28. Fundamental physical phenomena in classical heterostructures
One-side Injection
Propozal — 1948 (W. Shokley)
Experiment — 1965 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
(b)
Superinjection
Theory — 1966 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
(c)
Diffusion in built-in quasielectric field
Theory — 1956 (H. Kroemer)
Experiment — 1967 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

29. Fundamental physical phenomena in classical heterostructures
Electron and optical confinement
Propozal — 1963 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
(e)
Superlattices and quantum wells
Theory — (L.V. Keldysh)
First experiment —1970 (L. Esaki et al.)
Resonant tunnelling — (L.V. Iogansen)
In Quantum Wells — (L. Esaki et al.)

30. Heterojunctions — a new kind of semiconductor materials:
Long journey from infinite interface recombination to ideal heterojunction
Lattice matched heterojunctions
Ge–GaAs–1959 (R. L. Anderson)
AlGaAs–1967 (Zh. Alferov et al., J. M. Woodall & H. S. Rupprecht)
Quaternary HS (InGaAsP & AlGaAsSb)
Proposal–1970 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
First experiment–1972 (Antipas et al.)

31. Energy gaps vs lattice constants for semiconductors IV elements, III–V and II(IV)–VI compounds and magnetic materials in parentheses. Lines connecting the semiconductors, red for III–V, and blue for others, indicate quantum heterostructures, that have been investigated. Nitrides have not been yet included.

32. Schematic representation of the DHS injection laser in the first CW-operation at room temperature

33. Heterostructure solar cells
Space station “Mir” equipped with heterostructure solar cells

34. Heterostructure microelectronics
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
Suggestion—1948 (W.Shockley) Theory—1957 (H.Kroemer) Experiment—1972 (Zh.Alferov et al.) AlGaAs HBT
HEMT—1980 (T.Mimura et al.)
NAlGaAs-n GaAs Heterojunction
Speed-power performances

35. Heterostructure Tree
(by I. Hayashi, 1985)

36. Liquid Phase Epitaxy of III–V compounds
InAsGaP thin layer in InGaP/InGaAsP/InGaP/GaAs (111 A) structure with quantum well grown by LPE. TEM image of the structure.

37. Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) III–V compounds
Riber 32P
MESFET, HEMT
QCL, RTD, Esaki-Tsu SL
PD, LED, LD
....
Schematic view of MBE machine
MBE — high purity of materials, in situ control, precision of structure growth in layer thickness and composition

38. MOCVD growth of III–V compounds
Schematic view of MOCVD chamber
Aixtron AIX2000 HT (up to 6 x 2” wafers) Production oriented growth machine for the fabrication of device structures
Epiquip VP50-RP (up to 1 x 2” wafer) Flexible growth machine for laboratory studies
Unique method of wafer rotation leads to high uniformity of structure in wafer and high reproducibility from wafer to wafer
MOCVD — high purity of materials, large-scale device-oriented technology

39. Impact of dimensionality on density of states

40. Quantum cascade lasers
Band diagram
Layer sequence
Emission spectrum at room temperature
Light- and Volt-current characteristics

41. Quantum dot as superatom
Semiconductor
Quantum dot

42. Milestones of semiconductor lasers
• Evolution and revolutionary changes • Reduction of dimensionality results in improvements

43. “Magic leather” energy consumption43

44. Multijunction solar cells provide conversion of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency. Achievable efficiency of multijunction cells is > 50% 44 44

45. The experimental PV installation with output power of 1 kW based on concentrator III-V solar cells and Fresnel lens panels arranged on the sun-tracker (development of the Ioffe Institute). The efficiency >30% can be ensured by such a type of installations if they are equipped by tandem solar cells with efficiency >35%. 45

46. White light-emitting diodes:
efficiency, controllability, reliability, life time
Today:
InGaN-QW/GaN/sapphire light-emitting chip + YAG Ce phosphor
Outlook:
Monolithic microcavity LED with InGN/GN MQW active region
+ simple design
– phosphor loss
+ monolithic nature
+ absence of additional loss 46

47. Nanostructures for high power semiconductor lasers
Laser efficiency > 75%
Laser power > 10 W
Laser array output power > 100 W
Matrix output power > 5 kW 47

48. Global nanotechnology market forecast:
More than 1 trillion USD annually in the nearest 8–10 years 48

49. Summary 1. Heterostructures — a new kind of semiconductor materials:
expensive, complicated chemically & technologically but most efficient
2. Modern optoelectronics is based on heterostructure applications
DHS laser — key device of the modern optoelectronics
HS PD — the most efficient & high speed photo diode
OEIC — only solve problem of high information density of optical communication system
3. Future high speed microelectronics will mostly use heterostructures
4. High temperature, high speed power electronics — a new broad field of heterostructure applications
5. Heterostructures in solar energy conversion:
the most expensive photocells and the cheapest solar electricity producer
6. In the 21st century heterostructures in electronics will reserve only 1% for homojunctions 49