1. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration Figures from the NRC Report Copyright © 2014 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials on these pages are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. No part of these pages, either text or image may be used for any purpose other than personal use. Therefore, reproduction, modification, storage in a retrieval system or retransmission, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, for reasons other than personal use, is strictly prohibited without prior written permission.

2. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 1-1 U.S. crime and imprisonment rates, 1960-2010. NOTE: The different crime rates have been rescaled, as noted in the figure to facilitate comparison of time trends. SOURCE: Tonry, M. (2012, April 26). Sentencing. Presentation to the Robina Institute Annual Conference, Crime and Justice in America, 1975-2025. Minneapolis, MN.

3. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-1 U.S. state and federal imprisonment rate (1925-2012) and total incarceration including prison and jail inmates (1972-2012) per 100,000 residents. SOURCES: Maguire, K. (Ed.). (n.d.). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online. Albany, NY: University at Albany, Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center. Available: http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook [June 2013]; and for 2012 figures, Glaze, L.E., and Herberman, E.J. (2013). Correctional Populations in the United States, 2012. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics and U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. and World Population Clock. Available: http://www.census.gov/popclock/ [January 17, 2014]

4. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-2 Incarceration rates per 100,000 population of European and selected common law countries. NOTES: Rate estimates vary slightly from those of other sources for the United States. Year of reporting for the United States is 2012; years for other nations range from 2011 to 2013. SOURCE: International Centre for Prison Studies. (2013). World Prison Brief. Available: http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief [January 2014].

5. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-3 Percentage growth in federal and state prison populations and the local jail population by decade, 1972 to 2010. NOTE: Growth is measured as the percentage change from 1972 to 1980, from 1981 to 1990, from 1991 to 2000, and from 2001 to 2010.

6. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-4 Total adult correctional population, including state and federal prison, local jail, and probation and parole populations, 1972 to 2010. SOURCE: Maguire, K. (Ed.). (n.d.). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online. Albany, NY: University at Albany, Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center. Available: http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook [June 2013].

7. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-5 Change in state imprisonment rates per 100,000 population, 50 states, 1972-2000 and 2000-2010. SOURCE: Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics (1982) and Maguire, K. (Ed.). (n.d.). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online. Albany, NY: University at Albany, Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center. Available: http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook [June 2013].

8. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-6 Violent and property crime rates per 100,000 population, 1960 to 2011, and the drug arrest rate per 100,000, 1980 to 2010. SOURCES: Uniform Crime Reports. Drug crime rate, 1965-1980; Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1993). Age-Specific Arrests Rates and Race-Specific Arrests Rates for Selected Offenses, 1965-1992. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Uniform Crime Reporting Program; Maguire, K. (Ed.). (n.d.). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online. (Table 3.1062.2011, property and violent crime rates) Albany, NY: University at Albany, Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center. Available: http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook [June 2013]; and Uniform Crime Reports (drug arrest rates).

9. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-7 Combined state incarceration rate by crime type, 1980 to 2010. SOURCE: Beck, A.J., and Blumstein, A. (2012, October 31). Trends in Incarceration Rates: 1980-2010. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Washington, DC.

10. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-8 Arrests per 100 adult offenses by crime type, 1980 to 2010. SOURCE: Beck, A.J., and Blumstein, A. (2012, October 31). Trends in Incarceration Rates: 1980-2010. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Washington, DC.

11. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-9 State prison admissions per 100 adult arrests, 1980-2010. SOURCE: Beck, A.J., and Blumstein, A. (2012, October 31). Trends in Incarceration Rates: 1980-2010. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Washington, DC.

12. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-10 Estimated time served in state prison, 1980 to 2010. NOTE: See text for a discussion of calculations of time served. SOURCE: Beck, A.J., and Blumstein, A. (2012, October 31). Trends in Incarceration Rates: 1980-2010. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Washington, DC.

13. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-11 State and federal prison admission rates, 1926 to 1986, and state and federal imprisonment rates, 1980 to 2010, for blacks and whites. NOTES: A smooth line indicates the trend. Hispanics are included among both racial groups. SOURCES: Admissions rates are from Langan, P.A. (1991). Race of Prisoners Admitted to State and Federal Institutions, 1926-86. NCJ-125618. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Black and white imprisonment rates are from Beck, A.J., and Blumstein, A. (2012, October 31). Trends in Incarceration Rates: 1980-2010. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Washington, DC.

14. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-12 Average percentage of blacks among total arrests for murder and non-negligent manslaughter, robbery, forcible rape, and aggravated assault, by decade, 1972 to 2011. SOURCE: Uniform Crime Reports race-specific arrest rates, 1972 to 2011.

15. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-13 Drug arrest rates for blacks and whites per 100,000 population, 1972 to 2011. SOURCES: Uniform Crime Reports race-specific arrest rates, 1980 to 2011 (accessed from BJS). 1972 to 1979 is taken from Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1990). Age-Specific Arrests Rates and Race-Specific Arrests Rates for Selected Offenses, 1965-1988. NCJ 122713. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Uniform Crime Reporting Program.

16. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-14 Prison and jail incarceration rates per 100,000 population for non-Hispanic whites, non- Hispanic blacks, and Hispanics, aged 18 to 64, 1972-2010. SOURCE: See Appendix B of the 2014 NRC report The Growth in Incarceration in the United States.

17. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-15 Prison and jail incarceration rates for men aged 20-39 by education and race/ethnicity, 1972 and 2010. NOTES: C = at least some college; HS = all noncollege men; DO = less than 12 years of completed schooling. SOURCE: See Appendix B of the 2014 NRC report The Growth in Incarceration in the United States.

18. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 2-16 Cumulative risks of imprisonment by 1979 for men born in 1945-1949 and by 2009 for men born in 1975-1979, by race and education. NOTES: C = at least some college; HS = completed high school or general equivalency diploma (GED); DO = no high school diploma or GED. SOURCE: Data from Pettit, B., Sykes, B., and Western, B. (2009). Technical Report on Revised Population Estimates and NLSY-79 Analysis Tables for the Pew Public Safety and Mobility Project. Table 37. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.

19. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 9-1 Estimated number of parents in state and federal prisons and their minor children, by inmate’s gender. SOURCE: Data from Glaze, L.E., and Maruschak, L.M. (2008). Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children. NCJ 222984. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

20. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 10-1 Distribution of incarceration in New York City (2009). People admitted to prison per 1000 adults by census tract of residence with community district borders. NOTE: About half (52 percent) of the people sent to prison from New York City in 2009 came from 15 of the city’s 65 community districts. These 15 community districts have the highest prison admission rates among the city’s community districts and are labeled on the map according to rank from 1 to 15. They are collectively labeled “Highest (15)” and compared with the city’s remaining 50 community districts, labeled “Remaining (50),” in the figure above. SOURCE: Prepared for the committee by The Justice Mapping Center, Rutgers University School of Criminal Justice: Maps designed and produced by Eric Cadora and Charles Swartz.

21. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 10-2 Distribution of incarceration in Houston, Texas (2008). People admitted to prison per 1000 adults by census tract of residence with super neighborhood borders. NOTE: About half (52 percent) of the people sent to prison from Houston in 2008 came from 32 of the city’s 88 super neighborhoods. These 32 super neighborhoods have the highest prison admission rates among the city’s super neighborhoods and are labeled on the map according to rank from 1 to 32. They are collectively labeled “Highest (32)” and compared with the city’s remaining 56 super neighborhoods, labeled “Remaining (50),” in the figure above. SOURCE: Prepared for the committee by The Justice Mapping Center, Rutgers University School of Criminal Justice: Maps designed and produced by Eric Cadora and Charles Swartz.

22. National Research Council. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://nationalacademies.org/incarceration FIGURE 11-1Trends in state, local, and federal spending for corrections, 1980-2010. NOTE: Amounts shown are adjusted to 2011 dollars. SOURCE: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.-a). Federal, State, and Local Governments. Available: http://www.census.gov/govs/ and http://www2.census.gov/pub/outgoing/govs/special60/ [February 1, 2014].